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TANDARD 

English 
Grammar 



FEWSMITH-SINGER 
FLOUNDERS 




CHRISTOPHER SOWER COMPANY 

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COITKIGHT DEPOSfT. 



THE 



STANDARD 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



BY 

WILLIAM FEWSMITH, A.M. 

AND 

EDGAR A. SINGEK, A.M. 

ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OP PHILADELPHIA SCHOOLS 

REVISED BY 

GEORGE W. FLOUNDERS, Ph.D. 

PRINCIPAL OF THE ROBERT MORRIS SCHOOL OP PHILADELPHIA 



PHILADELPHIA 
CHRISTOPHER SOWER COMPANY 






LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

DEC 29 1905 

Copyright tntry 

CLASS CV. XXc. No 

t 3 / 3 6 X 
COPY B. 



COPVTUGHT BT 

CHRI8TOPH] l: BC«I I H CX>MPANY 
1906 






PREFACE. 



This book, true to its name, is a standard English gram- 
mar. It is not a " language book," but a treatise for the 
formal study of the grammar of the language. Neither 
have the authors attempted to combine the functions of a 
grammar and a work on rhetoric. At this stage of the 
students' development teachers have felt the need of texts 
upon the subject of grammar that would be more formal 
than the elementary beginners' book. In the treatment of 
the subject effort has been made either to invent new terms 
or to simplify the subject by the omission of essential parts. 
Simplification has been secured by the logical arrangement 
and clear exposition of the subject. 

In order to render the work thoroughly progressive nothing 
is anticipated when anticipation can possibly be avoided; 
and no part, or division, or subdivision, is introduced with- 
out explanation or some reference by which the mind of the 
pupil is prepared for its reception, until the portion under 
present consideration has been thoroughly treated. Thus 
the pupil is enabled to advance intelligently; and the teacher 
enjoys the satisfaction of knowing that his pupils under- 
stand what they are learning. 



(3) 



4 PREFACE. 

The terms phrase and clause have been somewhat 
loosely used in the past, but it is hoped that the restriction 
of these terms to a more definite meaning is in the interest 
of clearness. 

While it would be an excellent thing if all could be so 
situated that they would never hear incorrect English, few 
have been so fortunate as to enjoy this exceptional advantage. 
All pupils who are old enough to study formal grammar 
have heard much incorrect language. Having heard it and 
used it, they should now be taught why it is incorrect. They 
should be taught the rules governing the correct use of 
English, and they should be drilled upon the correct forms 
of expression. To this end enough "false syntax" has been 
used to secure a knowledge of correct English construction. 

To Dr. Edgar A. Singer, one of the original authors, and 
to Dr. Martin (i. Brumbaugh, Professor of Pedagogy in the 
University of Pennsylvania, are ilue the thanks of the reviser 
for their careful criticism of the manuscript. 

(i. W. Flounders. 
Bbptbmbeb 28, 1'. »().">. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Grammar, Definition and Divisions of . 9 



PART I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letters, Definitions and Classes of ........ 10 

Words 12 

Spelling 13 



PART II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Classes op Words 14 

Parts of Speech, Definitions of 14 

Nouns, Classes of 16 

Properties of 17 

Number 17 

Formation of the Plural 18 

Person 23 

Gender 24 

Case . 27 

Declension of 28 

Parsing 30 

Exercises in 30 

(5) 



6 COX TEXTS. 

PAGE 

Pronouns 31 

Properties of 31 

Classes of 32 

Personal 32 

Compound Personal 33 

Relative 35 

Compound Relative 36 

Interrogative 38 

Articles 40 

Adjectives -11 

Classes of -11 

Pronominal 42 

( lomparison of 45 

Verbs 4S 

Classes of, according to meaning 49 

Properties of 50 

Voice 50 

Mode 51 

Tense 53 

Number and Person 58 

Participles r, 7 

Classes ol Verba according to form • )!l 

Principal Parts *'" 

List of [rregular Verbs <>' 

Defective 88 

Lis! of 88 

Auxiliary '" 

( onjugal i'>n "i <>s 

Auxiliaries ,,s 

To /:■ "" 

To I " ■ . \' ' ■■> ■• \ oice '•'• 

To I y oice >8 

Progressive l orm, To Learn 81 

[nterrogative Form, To See ... 83 

Negative Form s ' 

Negative-Interrogative Form s ' 



Adverbs 



ss 



( ilasBee of .... 

Conjunctive 80 

Comparison of ^ 

Prepositions 83 

Classes of 83 



CONTENTS. 7 

PAGE 

Conjunctions 94 

Classes of . 95 

Interjections 96 

Words used as different Parts of Speech 97 



PART III. 



SYNTAX. 



Sentences, Definition of 100 

Classes of, according to use 100 

Classes of, according to form 101 

Divisions of Syntax 104 

Analysis 105 

Distinctions of Subject and Predicate 106 

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate . . . 106, 107 

Complete Subject and Complete Predicate . . . 107 

Compound Subject and Compound Predicate . . 108 

Exercises on Subjects and Predicates .... 109 

Independent Parts 110 

Qualifications of Simple Subject Ill 

Qualifications of Qualifying Words 112 

Qualifications of Simple Predicate 114 

Qualifications of Qualifying Words 115 

Classification of Phrases 116 

Classification of Clauses 117 

Analysis of Sentences 118 

General Exercises in Analysis ........ 120 

Synthesis 122 

Rules oe Syntax 123 

Rule I.— Subject of Finite Verb . 124 

Rule II. — Nominative Case Independent 127 

Rule III. — Possessive Case 129 

Rule D7 —Objective Case 132 

Rule V. — Apposition 136 

Rule VI.— Same Case after Verbs 139 

Rule VII.— Personal Pronouns 140 

Rule VIII.— Relative Pronouns 144 

Rule IX.— Articles 148 



8 CONTEXTS. 

PAGE 

Rules of Syntax — 

Rule X. — Adjectives 151 

Rule XL — Pronominal Adjectives 155 

Rule XII. — Agreement of Finite Verbs 158 

Rule XIII.— Infinitives 162 

Rule XIV.— Participles 166 

Rule XV.— Adverbs 169 

Rule XVI. — Prepositions 172 

Rule XVII. — Conjunctions 177 

Rule XVIII. — Interjections 181 

General Rule 1S1 

Figures 183 

Figures of Syntax ls| 

Figures of Rhetoric lst 

Capitals ls,i 

Punctuation lss 

Period I 88 

Interrogation Point ls '-' 

Exclamation Point " , " 

Colon IW 

Semicolon ''- 1 ' 

Comma '•'- 

I lash, I lurves, Brackets I!,,) 

Quotation Marks IW 



THE 



STANDARD 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Grammar is the science which treats of the correct use 
of language. 

Science is the principles of any branch of knowledge arranged 
according to a system, or in regular order. 

Language is the means by which human beings express their 
thoughts in words. Language is either spoken or written. 

English Grammar is the science which treats of the 
correct use of the English language, both in speaking and 
in writing. 

English Grammar may be divided into three parts: — 
Orthography, Etymology, and Syntax. 

Orthography treats of Letters, and teaches how to spell cor- 
rectly. 

Etymology treats of Words, teaches how to classify them, 
and shows their changes of form and meaning. 

Syntax treats of Sentences, and teaches how to construct 
them from words. 

(9) 



PART I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Orthography treats of Letters, and teaches how to spell 
correctly. 

Letters are particular marks or signs used to represent certain 
sounds of ili«- human voice. 

Tlie soimd> of all words in the English language can l>e represented 
by different combinations of the twenty-six letters in its alphabet 

CLASSES OF LETTERS. 

Letters are divided into two classes; Vowels ami Conso- 
nants. 

A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple, perfect 
sound; as, <i, e, <>. 

A Consonant is a letter which represents a sound that can 
he perfectly made only with the aid of a vowel; as, J, /,-, i, 

VOWELS. 
A Vowel is a letter w bich represents a simple, perfect sound 

'The VOWels are </. , , i, <>, u, and sometimes "' and // 

W nr // i> a vowel when it ends a word or a syllable; when it i> not 
followed in die -aim- syllable by a vowel; or when it i- followed in the 
same syllable by a vowel not sounded; as, boy, lowly; grown, sylph; 
styl* , iiu-i . In every other position w or y is a consonant. 

, in, 



DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 11 

Exercise. — Mention the vowels and the consonants in the following 
words, and give the reasons: — Animal, muslin, grammar, thousand, 
mountain, happiness, board, school, arithmetic, December, bread, 
wonder, beware, dwell, youth, destiny, myrtle, sympathy, knowl- 
edge, lawyer, strength, journey, phlegm, plague, weigh. 



DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

When two vowels are used to represent one sound, they 
form what is called a Diphthong; as, oa in load; oi in voice. 

There are two kinds of diphthongs; Proper and Improper. 

A Proper Diphthong is one m which both vowels are sounded; as, 
ou in mouse; oy in joyful. There are four proper diphthongs; oi, ou, 
oy, and ow. 

An Improper Diphthong is one m which but one of the vowels is 
sounded; as, ea in beat; eu in neuter. Improper diphthongs are very 
numerous. 

When three vowels are used to represent one sound, they 
form what is called a Triphthong; as, eau in beauty; lew in 
view. 

There are two kinds of triphthongs; Proper and Improper. 

A Proper Triphthong is one in which all three vowels are sounded; 
as, uoy in buoy. 

An Improper Triphthong is one in which but one or two of the 
vowels are sounded; as, eye, and ieu in lieu. The principal improper 
triphthongs are ieu, eau, lew. 

The consonant q is always followed by u; when so placed 
u is never considered as a part of a diphthong or a triph- 
thong. 

Exercise .—Mention the proper and the improper diphthongs and 
triphthongs in the following words, and give the reasons : — Moaning, 
employ, outset, beauty, though, plough, review, chair, growling, 
lieu, slaughter, news, learn, coast, thief, loud, buoy, quoit, eye, 
gracious, herbaceous, outlie, broad, heroes, receive, ocean. 



12 CONSONANTS— S YLLABLES— WORDS. 

CONSONANTS. 

A Consonant is a letter which represents a sound that can 
be perfectly made only with the aid of a vowel, 

The consonants are divided into two classes; Semi-vowels and Mutes. 

Semi-vowels are letters which can be imperfectly sounded without 
the aid of a vowel; as, c, j, v y. 

They are c soft, /, _'/ -oft. Ii, j, I, m n r, s v u\ x, y, and z. 

C has its soft sound (the sound of s) before < , i, and y; before other 
letters it has the sound of /;. 

G has its soft sound (the sound of ;') before e, i, and y; there are, 
however, some exceptions. 

Four of the semi-vowels, /, m, n, and r, are called Liquids, on account 
of their smooth and Bowing sound. 

Mutes are letters which r; t ii not be sounded without the aid of a 
vowel : as, p, 7, / k. 

They are b, e hard, </, 7 hard, /.-. p 7. and t. 

SYLLABLES. 

A Syllable is a letter, <>r B Dumber of letters, which, when 
uttered, form one unbroken sound; a>, for, o-far. 

A syllable may Im- either a word or a |»art of a word; if written, it 

always contains, a vowel; it' spoken, ■ vowel Bound. 

WORDS. 

A Written Word i- a letter, or a number of letters properly 
combined, used as the sign of some idea; as, /. day, army. 

A Spoken Word is a sound, or a number of sounds com- 
bined, used to express some idea 

Wordd are named according to the number of syllables which they 
contain 

A word which contain- one syllable is called a Mono- 
syllable; as. truth: otic which contains two syllables is 



DIVISION OF WORDS—SPELLING. 13 

called a Dissyllable; as, truthful: one which contains three 
syllables is called a Trisyllable; as, untruthful: one which 
contains more than three syllables is called a Polysyllable; 
as, untruthfulness, incomprehensible. 

Division of Words. 

Words are divided according to their formation into Simple, or 
Compound; Primitive, or Derivative. 

A Simple Word is one which is not formed by uniting two or more 
words; as, hand, paper, father. 

A Compound Word is one which is formed by the union of two or 
more simple words; as, hand-machine, newspaper. The words form- 
ing a compound are sometimes connected by the hyphen {-) ; as, father- 
in-law. 

A Primitive Word is one which is not formed from any other word 
in the same language, but is in its first or simplest form; as, sin, wind, 
lady. 

A Derivative Word is one which is formed from a primitive word 
by some change, or by prefixing or suffixing another syllahle or word; 
as, sinful, windy, lady-like. 

Exercise. — Tell to which of the above-named divisions each of the 
following words belongs, and give the reason : — Breakfast, fleetness, lover, 
within, uneasy, self-taught, teach, statesman, write, movable, presi- 
dent, circle, prison-ship, copying, useful, store-house, citizen, chief, 
harmed, certain, poet, penman, outlaw, evergreen, star-gazer. 

SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of combining letters properly, to form 
syllables and words. This art is best learned from spelling- 
books and dictionaries, and from observation in reading. 



PART II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 



Etymology treats of Words, teaches how to classify them, 
and shows their changes of form and meaning. 

Words arc Classified, Inflected, and Derived. 

To Classify words is to arrange them in classes according t<> their 
um- ami meaning 

To Inflect words is to change their Forms, so a^ to show their relations 
to other words. 

To Derive words is to trace them from their primitive Forms and 
meanings. 

All that is at present necessary to be known of the origin and of 
the different Forms of words, has been given under "Divisions of 
Words." (See page 13.) Further information must be gained from 
books on this subject, a- it can not be Fully treated of in grammar. 

CLASSES OF WORDS. 
Worth are divided into nine classes, called the Parts of 

Speech. 

The Parts of Speech are the NOUN, the PRONOUN, the 

Article, the Aiui < m i . tin' Verb, the Adverb, the Prepo- 
sition, tin' CONJl NOTION, and the INTERJECTION. 

THE DEFINITIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
A Noun is ;i word used as the name of any thing; as, 
Washington, country, beauty, soul. 

(14) 



DEFINITIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 15 

A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun; as, "Henry 
loves his books; he studies his lessons well." 
^ An Article is the word the, or a or an, which is used before 
a noun to limit its meaning; as, The star; a house; an insect. 

An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a noun 
or a pronoun; as, A sweet apple; many books; "He is good." 

A Verb is a word used to assert action, being, or state; 
as, "James runs" — "He does something." — "I am here." 
— "The child sleeps." 

An Adverb is a word used to qualify the meaning of a 
verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, "He is very indus- 
trious, and advances rapidly in his studies." 

A Preposition is a word used before a noun or a pronoun 
to show its relation to some preceding word; as, "The boy 
went with his father to the library." 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect the words, the 
parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between which it is 
placed; as, "He is patient and happy, because he is a Chris- 
tian." 

An Interjection is a word used in exclamation, to express 
some emotion of the mind; as, Ha! pshaw! alas! 

Two or more of these parts of speech are always used in combination 
to form a sentence; one of these must be a (finite) verb. 

A sentence, then, consists of two or more words, one of which must 
be a finite verb, so combined as to make complete sense. 

Sentences constitute distinct and separate portions of spoken or 
written language. 

Larger portions of written language composed of two or more sen- 
tences are called paragraphs, chapters, etc. One sentence, however, 
may sometimes constitute a paragraph. 



16 XOUXS— DIVISIONS OF COMMON XOUXS. 



NOUNS. 



A Noun is a word used as the name of any thing; as, James, 
Anna, boy, girl, river, truth. 

Words used as the names of letters, words, figures, signs, etc., are 
nouns; as, "E is a vowel." 'The / is nol crossed." — " ^indicates 
addition." — "Good i=. an adjective." 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 
Nouns are divided into two general classes; Proper and 

( MllllllOll 

A Proper Noun i> a word used n- the name <>l' a particular 
object <>r collection of objects, to distinguish it from others 
of the same class; as, John, Troy, Ohio, the Alps. 

A Common Noun i- a word used a- the name of any object 
or collection of objects of the same class; as, man, city, river, 
mountain*. 

A noun is called Complex, when it i- Formed «»f two or more words 

nol united, used together as one m •; as, Dead Sea, Chief Justice 

Marshall, huh of Wellington. 

A noun i> called Compound, when it i^ Formed of two or more words 
united, used a- <"i<- name; as, statesman, landlord, man-of-ioar. 

i-i — Till to whiol "t' tli'- Following noun* belongs, 

and give the reaaon :— William Shakspeare, islands, word, North Amer- 
ica, July, no— on. year, Prince Henry, Robert I'. Peary, man, 
major-general, Potomaa balloon, -<>t<lnr. adverb, President 
vi It. :mitii:il. pathways the Bahamas, foeman. 

Classes of Common Nouns. 

Common noun- are sometimes divided into tour classes; Collective, 
Verbal, Abstract and Diminutive. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS— NUMBER. 17 

A Collective Noun is a word used as the name of a collection of 
beings or of things^ regarded as a unit; as, family, herd, class. 

A Verbal Noun is a form of the verb which is used as the name of 
an action or of a state of being It always ends with ing; as, reading f 
writing, sleeping. A Verbal noun is also called a Participial noun. 

An Abstract Noun is a word used as the name of a quality belong- 
ing to an object: as, redness, heat, ivisdom. This quality is always con- 
sidered apart from the object which possesses it 

A Diminutive Noun is a derivative word used as the name of an 
object which is smaller than that denoted by the primitive word; as., 
flower, -floweret; hill, hillock. 

Exercise. — Tell to which class of common nouns each of the following 
belongs, and give the reasons : — Teaching, circlet, greatness, flock, 
leaflet, group, happiness, manikin, school, swimming, globule, 
swarm, duckling, purity, piety, squadron, truth, ignorance, lying, 
rivulet, streamlet, congress, meeting, coronet, honesty, nation, 
honor. 

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 

Property, in Grammar, means a peculiar quality belonging 
to any part of speech. 

Nouns have four properties; Number, Person, Gender, 
and Case. 

NUMBER. 

Number is that property of a noun which denotes whether 
one object or collection of objects is meant, or more than 
one. 

Nouns have two numbers , the Singular and the Plural. 

The Singular Number denotes one object, or a collection 
of objects considered as a unit; as, desk, bench, nation, flock. 

The Plural Number denotes more than one object or col- 
lection of objects; as, desks , benches, nations, flocks. 



18 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

Nouns generally become plural by the suffixing of s to the 
singular; as, sing, home, plnr. homes; key, keys; rose, roses; 
clock, clocks; cameo, cameos. 

This rule always applies to nouns ending with o, u, or y, immediately 
preceded by a vowel; as, bay, bays; tru>, trio*; purlieu, purlieus. 

Nouns ending with ch (not sounded a> k), s, sh, x, or z, become 
plural by the suffixing of es to the singular; as, bunch, bum-Ins; (jus, 
gases; sash, sushis; fox, foxes; waltz, waltzes. 

Nouns ending with y immediately preceded by a consonant, become 
plural by the change of y into i and the suffixing of is; as, study, studies; 
army, a nuns. 

Some nouns ending with single / or fe, become plural by the change 
of / iut<> D and the -i i Hixi mr of es; as life, lives; thief, thieves. 

These nouns arc beef, calf, elf, half, leaf, /<»//, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, 
irnlj, knife, life, wife. 

( >ihcr nouns ending \\ iili single / <>r fe, become plural by the general 
rule; but wharf has two forms of t'i • plural, wharfs and wharves. 

Nouns ending with //. become plural by ill-' general rule; as, >»ufj, 
muffs; but staff, mining a cam-, has stavt a for the plural; it> compounds, 
however, become plural by tin- suffixing <>!' s only; as, flagstaffs, dis- 
taffs. 

Nouns ending with o immediately preceded by a consonant, <liMVr 

in the formation of 1 1 1« - plural. Some become plural by the suffixing 

others by the suffixing "f s only; 1 1 ■« - former mode is preferable. 

The folio* ing become plural by 1 1 »« - suffixing of es: barricado, bravado, 
liu/j<ili>, calico, cargo, desperado, echo, flamingo, lnr<>, unman, manifesto, 
motto, mulatto, »"/r<», potato, stiletto, tomato, tornado, piraoo,and a few 
others. 

The following commonly become plural by the suffixing <>f a only: 
armadillo, canto, duodecimo, grotto, Im/n, junto, memento, octavo, piano, 
portico, quarto, rotunda, salvo, solo, tyro, zero, and a few others. 

When proper nouns become plural, they follow the analogy of com- 
mon nouns; as, William, Williams; Adams, Adamses, Carolina, Caro- 
liims; < 'ato, < 'atos. 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 



19 



The method of forming the plural of proper nouns ending with y 
preceded by a consonant; is not settled. Some writers suffix s to form 
the plural; others follow the rule for common nouns; as, Henrys or 
Henries; Marys or Maries: the latter mode is preferable. 

Exercise. — Apply the rules in forming the plural of the following nouns: 

Model. — Lady. — The plural of lady is ladies. — " Lady" is a noun ending 
with y immediately preceded by the consonant d; therefore, the plural is 
formed by the change of y into i and the suffixing of es, according to the 
rule, "Nouns ending with y immediately preceded by a consonant, become 
plural, etc." 

Folio, crutch, class, piano, brush, sex, topaz, sentry, monarch, 
loaf, chief, strife, tipstaff, puff, calico, fife, roof, tomato, quiz, 
tax, studio, chimney, echo, essay, canto, factory, grief, distich, 
wife, shelf, surf, scratch, staff (a body of officers), colloquy, buoy, 
Virginia, Venus, Nero, Alleghany, Mary, Wolsey, Charles, Sicily. 

The Irregular Formation of the Plural. 

The following nouns have irregular plurals: — 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

Man, men. Foot, feet. Goose, geese. 

Child, children. Tooth, teeth. Louse, lice. 

Woman, women. Ox, oxen. Mouse, mice. 

The following nouns have both regular and irregular 
plurals, but with different meanings: — 

Sing. Regular Plural. 

Brother, brothers (of a family), 

Die, dies (stamps for coining), 

Genius, geniuses (men of genius), 

Index, indexes (tables of reference), 

Penny, pennies (coins), 

Pea, peas (seeds), 

Cow, cows (individual animals) , 

Sow, sows (individual animals), 



Irregular Plural. 

brethren (of a society). 
dice (blocks for gaming). 
genii (spirits). 
indices (exponents). 
pence (amount of value). 
pease (the species). 
kine (the kind). 
swine (the kind). 



The Plural of Compound Nouns. 

Compound nouns in which the first part describes the last, have the 
last word made plural; as, field-mouse, field-mice; fellow-servant, fellow- 
servants; statesman, statesmen. 



20 FORMATIOX OF THE PLURAL. 

The compound nouns in which the first part is described by the last, 
have the first part made plural; as, commander-in-chief, commanders- 
in-chief; looker-on, lookers-on; aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp. 

Compounds which have all their parts of equal importance, or which 
are taken from foreign languages, become plural like simple words; as, 
piano-forte, piano-fortes; sine~qua-non, sine-qua-nons. 

Some compound nouns have both parts plural; as, man-child, men- 
children; woman-singer, worn* n-singi rs. 

Compounds ending with ful become plural regularly; as, cupful, 
eupfuls. 

Not all nouns ending with the syllable man are compounds of the 
word "man;" as, Turcoman, Ge r man , talisman, Ottoman, etc. These 
become plural by the suffixing of .v. 

i i-i . — Form tin- plural <>f each of the following compound nouns, 
ami apply the rule: — Coachful, landlady, major-general, ox-chain, 
maid-of-aU-work, goose-feather, Btep-son, sister-in-law, attorney-general, 
hanger-on, «l«»— little-, tooth-brush, Bales-woman, statesman, kni^lit- 
errant, penny-a-liner, vade-mecum, alderman, boot-maker, club-foot, 

lii:ui-ot-\\:ir, iliiiini. v->\\ t ip. fac-totum, liair-dn— - r. en an<l-l»>\ . 

The Plural of Complex Proper Nouns. 

When a complex proper noun, with or without a title prefixed, is 

used in reference t" a class <>f individuals, it bee - plural, and the 

sign ..i" the plural is suffixed to the last word only; as, 'The Str Isaac 
Newtona <>( every science-"— "The Oliver CromweUa of history." 

When a title is prefixed t" a proper noun used as the name of more 
than on.- individual, tin- titl.- is made plural; as, The Messrs Smith; the 
M Jan thi Do ion Rush. 

When a title b common t>' several differenl names, the tide is made 

plural; a*, Messrs. Hand. \ 'intoii and Wakefield 

When a definite Dumber of individuals >>f the 9ame name and title 
is mentioned, the name only becomes plural; as, The three Miss Brown- 
ings; the two Doctor Tj0n$. 

When the title b Mrs., the sign ->f the plural b suffixed to the last 
name; ;<-. The Mr 

When two titles <■ m<>n to several names and of equal importance 

an- prefixed, both titles become plural; a-, The Lords Commissioner* 

Russell and North. 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 



21 



Exercise. — Give the proper form of the plural of the following com- 
plex proper nouns: — General Miles and Chaffee; Lord North and Russell; 
Counsellor Knox and Root; the Alexander Hamilton of the day; the 
Mrs. Thomas; the Miss Stewart. 

Give the proper form for the following incorrect plurals: — The ten Popes 
Leo; the two Kings Charles of England; the Mrs. Hall; the three 
Misses Brown; Miss Jane and Mary Brown; the Miss Jameses. 



The Plural of Foreign Nouns. 

By foreign nouns are meant those adopted from foreign languages. 
Some foreign nouns, having come into familiar use, have regular 
English plurals as well as their original plurals. 
The following are the most common:— 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Bandit, 


bandits, banditti. 


Beau, 


beaus, beaux. 


Cactus, 


cactuses, cacti. 


Cherub, 


cherubs, cherubim. 


Encomium, 


encomiums, encomia. 


Focus, 


focuses, foci. 


Fungus, 


funguses, fungi. 


Gymnasium, 


gymnasiums, gymnasia. 


Medium, 


mediums, media. 


Memorandum, 


memorandums, memoranda 


Seraph, 


seraphs, seraphim. 


Stamen, 


stamens, stamina. 


Virtuoso, 


virtuosos, virtuosi. 



Most foreign words used as English nouns still retain their original 
plurals; among these are the following: — 



Singular. 

Alumna, 


Plural. 

alumnae. 


Singular. 

Crisis, 


Plural. 

crises. 


Alumnus, 


alumni. 


Datum, 


data. 


Amanuensis, 


amanuenses. 


Desideratum, 


desiderata 


Analysis, 
Antithesis, 


analyses, 
antitheses. 


Diaeresis, 
Effluvium, 


diaereses, 
effluvia. 


Arcanum, 

Axis, 

Basis, 


arcana. 

axes. 

bases. 


Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Erratum, 


ellipses. 

emphases. 

errata. 



22 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Genus, 


genera. 


Parenthesis, 


parentheses 


Hypothesis, 


hypotheses. 


Phenomenon, 


phenomena. 


Larva, 


larvae. 


Radius, 


radii. 


Madam, 


mesdames. 


Stimulus, 


stimuli. 


Magus, 


magi. 


Stratum, 


strata. 


Metamorphosis 


, metamorphoses. 


Terminus, 


termini. 


Monsieur, 


messieurs. 


Thesis, 


theses. 


Nebula, 


nebula?. 


Vertebra, 


vertebne. 


( )asis, 


oases. 







Nouns Not Used in Both Numbers. 

Some nouns are used in the singular Dumber only. Such are abstract 
DOUns; the names nf metals, virtue.-, vices art-, and seienees, and of 
things weighed or measured; as, goodness, gold, wisdom, truth, idleness, 
surgery, geometry, sugar, jl<>ur. 

Name- of sciences ending with ics, as routes, optics, etc., though plural 
in idea and fonn, are regarded as singular only. 

When different kinds of things weighed or measured are mentioned, 
the plural form may be used; as, sugars, teas, wines. 

The noun- alms, molasses news, are singular only. 

Some in. up- are used in the plural number only. The most common 
are annals, archives, ashes, assets, billiards, hitters, cattle, clothes, drugs, 
goods, manners, measles, morals, nuptials, <»its, thanks, tidings, victuals, 
wages: also the names of things consisting of two parts; as, compasses, 
pincers, pantaloons, tongs, tweezers, trowsers, scissors, scales, spectacles. 



Nouns Having the Same Form in Both Numbers. 

Some noun- have the same form in both numbers; as, deer, fish, series, 
sheep, 'rout vermin etc . so also nouns denoting a number or collection; 
as hundred-weight, couple, dozen gross head, j>air. score: these words 
may have a plural form; as "Dozens of gloves were sold.' 

Also SUcfa word- BS am, mis, uoans, rielns, i-ainum, sail, etc. 

These words are singular if preceded by a word denoting but one; 
plural if preceded by a word denoting a number more than one. 

When other part- of Bpeech are used as noun-, they become plural 
like noun- with similar endings; as, "The ins and outs of office." 



PERSON. 23 

Letters and signs used as nouns become plural by the suffixing of the 
apostrophe (') and s; as, The a's and b's; the 6's and 7'*. 

Exercise. — Name each noun in the following sentences, and the class 
to which it belongs; tell its number, and give the reason: — A soft answer 
turneth away wrath. We, the people of the United States, resolve. George 
Washington commanded the Americans at the battle of Brandy wine, Sept. 
11, 1777. It is the duty of children to obey their parents. A human soul 
without education is like marble in the quarry. Sir Henry Clinton was 
Commander-in-chief of the British army in America, in 1778. The Falls 
of Niagara are in a river of the same name. The wherefores are very plain. 

PERSON. 

Person is that property of a noun which distinguishes the 
speaker or writer, the person or thing addressed, and the 
person or thing mentioned. 

Nouns have three persons; the First, the Second, and the 
Third. 

The First Person is that which denotes the speaker or 
writer; as, "I, James, will go?" 

The Second Person is that which denotes the person or thing 
addressed; as, "James, will you go.?" 

The Third Person is that which denotes the person or thing 
mentioned; as, "James will go." — "Leaves fall." 

Nouns are rarely used in the first person: in the majority of sentences, 
nouns are in the third person. 

Exercise. — Tell to what class each noun in the following sentences 
belongs; tell its number and -person, and give the reasons: — I, Csesar, came, 
saw, and conquered. Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated at the battle of 
Waterloo, June 15, 1815. "Charge, Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!" 
were the last words of Marmion. These are thy works, Parent of Good. A 
good man is a prince of the Almighty's creation. Thou, a man in full vigor 
of mind, shouldst be able to understand the meaning of the expression. 
Arise, countrymen, and let " Liberty" be your watchword. There is one 
thing that happeneth to the wise man and to the fool. 



24 GEXDER. 



GENDER. 



Gender is that property of nouns which distinguishes them 
in regard to sex. 

Nouns have three genders; the Masculine, the Feminine, 
and the Neuter. 

The Masculine Gender is that which denotes beings of the 
male sex, as. father, king, stag. 

The Feminine Gender is that which denotes beings of the 
female sex; as, mother, queen, hind. 

The Neuter Gender is that which denotes objects that are 
without sex, as, table, book, mountain, wisdom. 

In nature, there are only two sexes belonging t<> persons and animals, 
the male and the ft malt : in grammar the Dames of males arc said to be 
of the masculine gender the names <>t' females to !><• <>f the feminine 
gender, ami the names of things without litV to !»<• <»f the neuter gender 

Some nouns, such as parent, child friend, servant, denote beings that 
may be either male or female their gender is determined t>y the tense 
in which they are used; if females are not especially referred t<>. these 
nouns are regarded as masculine. 

Methods of Indicating Sex. 
Sex may be indicated in three ways, 

1 By the use of different terminations, as, heir, heiress. 

2 l'.\ the use of different words, as, boy, girl. 

•'!. By forming compound words, as, man-servant, maid- 
servant 

I Hi no USI "i Dim i;i \ i Ti i:\ii\ \ 1 1"\>. 

According to this method, feminine nouns are regularly formed from 
masculine nouns, by the -uHixim: of the terminations est, me, ix, and 
others, with or without addition, omission, or change of letters in the 
masculine 





GENDER. 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot, 


abbess. 


Hunter, 


huntress. 


Actor, 


actress. 


Idolater, 


idolatress. 


Administrator 


administratrix. 


Instructor, 


instructress. 


Ambassador, 


ambassadress. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Arbiter, 


arbitress. 


Landgrave, 


landgravine. 


Auditor, 


auditress. 


Lion, 


lioness. 


Author, 


authoress. 


Marquis, 


marchioness. 


Baron, 


baroness. 


Mayor, 


mayoress. 


Benefactor, 


benefactress. 


Monitor, 


monitress. 


Caterer, 


cateress. 


Mister (Mr.), 


Mistress (Mrs.) 


Conductor, 


conductress. 


Negro, 


negress.' 


Count, 


countess. 


Patron, 


patroness. 


Czar, 


czarina. 


Peer, 


peeress. 


Dauphin, 


dauphiness. 


Poet, 


poetess. 


Deacon, 


deaconess. 


Priest, 


priestess. 


Director, 


directress, or 


Prince, 


princess. 




directrix. 


Prior, 


prioress. 


Doctor, 


doctress. 


Prophet, 


prophetess. 


Don, 


donna. 


Protector, 


protectress. 


Duke, 


duchess. 


Shepherd, 


shepherdess. 


Editor, 


editress. 


Songster, 


songstress. 


Elector, 


electress. 


Sorcerer, 


sorceress. 


Emperor, 


empress. 


Sultan, 


sultaness, or 


Enchanter, 


enchantress. 




sultana. 


Executor, 


executrix, or 


Tailor, 


tailoress. 




executress. 


Testator, 


testatrix. 


Founder, 


foundress. 


Tiger, 


tigress. 


God, 


goddess. 


Traitor, 


traitress. 


Giant, 


giantess. 


Tutor, 


tutoress. 


Governor, 


governess. 


Tyrant, 


tyranness. 


Heir, 


heiress. 


Viscount, 


viscountess. 


Hero, 


heroine. 


Votary, 


votaress. 


Host, 


hostess. 


Widower, 


widow. 




2. By the Use ot 


Different Words. 


Masculine 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor, 


maid. 


Boy, 


girl. 


Beau, 


belle. 


Brother, 


sister. 



2.", 



26 


GENDER. 






Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 




Feminine. 


Buck, 


doe. 


Lord. 




lady. 


Bull, 


COW. 


Male, 




female. 


Cock, 


hen. 


Master, 




Miss, mistress. 


Drake, 


duck. 


Milter, 




spawner. 


Earl, 


countess. 


Nephew, 




niece. 


Father, 


mother. 


Papa, 




mamma. 


Friar, monk, 


nun. 


Ram, 




ewe. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Sir, 




madam. 


Hart, 


roe. 


Sire, 




dam. 


Horse, 


marc. 


Son, 




daughter. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Stag, 




hind. 


King, 


queen. 


Uncle, 




aunt. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Wizard, 




witch. 




:;. I'.v Forming ( 


Iompoi \l> 


Words. 


M iwrulinr. 


H inc. 


.'inc. 


nir>C. 


Bridegroom, 


bride 


Landlord 




landlady. 


( lock-sparrow 


hen-sparrow. 


Man-servant, 


maid-servant. 


( rentleman, 


gentlewoman. 


Peacock, 




peahen 


( rrandfather, 


grandmother. 


Step-fath< 


•r. 


step-mother. 


I [i -goat, 


she-goat. 


Schoolma 


Bter, 


schoolmistress 



Remarks. 

Many masculine nouns have do corresponding feminine; as, butcher, 
..in.- feminine nouns have no corresponding masculine; as, 
spinster, low 

Gender is attributed to objects without sex when they are addressed 

or mentioned as persons, as, "The ship glides sn thly on her (Jem.) 

way ' ' The sun shines in his These objects are said 

to !»• p. rem 

Objects thai BUggesI an idea of firmness, power, vaetness, sublimity, 
etc., an- personified as males, and objects thai suggest an idea of gentie- 
itrfy, timidity, etc, intriee, and ships,&re personified 

as females. 

Young children and animals are often referred to a- if without sex; 
as. "The deer was killed as U {tu id.) browsed on the hill-side " 

If the objects composing the unit denoted by a collective noun an 
considered collectively, the noun is s ; ,i,| to be of the neuter gender; as, 
"The must l>r divided." 



CASE. 27 

If the objects composing the unit denoted by a collective noun are 
considered separately, the noun is said to be of the gender correspond- 
ing to the sex of the individuals that form the collection; as, "The class 
said that they (masc. or fern.) wished to converse." 

Exercise I. — Mention the corresponding masculine or feminine of the 
following nouns: — Stepson, lass, sultan, hunter, grandson, sister-in-law, 
widow, lord, miss, earl, witch, emperor, marquis, schoolmaster, 
executrix, duchess, editor, man-servant, testator, hero, nephew, heir, 
ewe, songster, god, sorcerer, monk, donna, czarina, hind, roe. 

Exercise II. — Tell the class to which each noun belongs; also, the 
number and the person, and give the reasons. 

CASE. 

Case is that property of nouns which distinguishes their 
relations to other words. 

Nouns have three cases; the Nominative, the Possessive, 
and the Objective. 

The Nominative Case is that which usually denotes the 
subject of a verb; as, "The boy reads." 

The subject of a verb denotes that of which something is either said or 
asserted. 

The Possessive Case is that which usually denotes posses- 
sion or origin; as, The boy's book; Milton's poems. 

The Objective Case is that which usually denotes the object 
of a verb, or of a preposition; as, "The boy struck his sister." 
— "The apple is sweet to the taste." 

The object of a verb denotes that upon which the action asserted by 
the verb is exerted. The object of a preposition denotes the object of 
the relation shown by the preposition. 

The Forms of the Cases. 
The nominative and the objective case of nouns are alike 
in form. They are distinguished from each other by their 
relations to other words. 



28 DEC LEX SI OX OF NOUNS. 

The possessive case may always be known by its form. 

The possessive case in the singular number is usually 
formed by .suffixing the apostrophe and s ('s) to the nomina- 
tive singular; as, nom. day, poss. day's. 

An apostrophe only is sometimes used to distinguish the possessive 
case, when the nominative singular ends with the sound of s and the 
next word begins with the same sound; as, For conscience' sake; Joins' 
store. It is preferable to use both an apostrophe and s in all such 
instances. 



The possessive case in the plural number is formed by 
suffixing the apostrophe only to the nominative plural when 
the nominative plural ends with s, and by suffixing both 
the apostrophe and « when the nominative plural does not 

end with b; a-, num. days; poss. days'; nom. men; poss. 

mi n's. 

Tin- possessive case of compound and complex noun- is formed bv 
suffixing the 's t" the end of the last word; as, "The man-of-war's atm\ 
the men-of-VHtr the eourt^marHart sentence; John Hancock's 

signature. 

In tin- possessive c tse of nouns having the -am.- form in both numbers, 
the apostrophe precedes the ( in tin- singular, and follow- it in the plural, 
for tin- -ah<- <»f distinction; a-. "The -/" r's horn was broken." " A load 
of ilnrs' horn-- was offered lor -alt." 

Tin- apostrophe and $ are not always used a- the sign of tin- possessive 
case. Tiny are sometimes used t" form the plural of letters, characters, 
etc., used as noun-; .1-. " Hi- t's were nol crossed." Tiny are also u^-,\ 
to form tin- singular of some verbs; a-. "He pro's and con'*, and con- 
siders the question carefully.' 1 

THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

The Inflection of ?t« n m-- i^ called Declension. 
The Declension of nouns i^ tin- regular arrangement of 
their numbers and cases. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 29 

Examples of Declension. 



Norn. Friend, Ox, Sky, Church, James, Box, 

Poss. friend's, ox's, sky's, church's, James's, box's, 
Ob]. friend; ox; sky; church; James; box; 



Norn, friends, oxen, skies, churches, Jameses, boxes, 
Poss. friends', oxen's, skies', churches', Jameses', boxes', 
Ob]. friends. oxen. skies. churches. Jameses, boxes. 

Exercise I. — Decline the following nouns: — Torch, fox, colony, 
money, glass, foot, wife, lash, cargo, trio, Jones, page, study, 
princess, brother-in-law, thief, spoonful, dwarf, mouse, potato. 

Exercise II. — Form the possessive singular and plural of the follow- 
ing nouns: — Chimney, waltz, country, flag-staff, brush, musk-ox, 
salesman, cupful, German, son-in-law, George Washington, court- 
martial, Robert Morris, Mussulman, commander-in-chief, half, sheep. 

Subject and Object. 

The subject of a verb may be learned by asking the question formed 
by placing who or what before the verb; the answer to the question is 
the subject; as, "John studies." Who studies? John. Here John is 
the subject of the verb studies, and, therefore, is in the nominative case. 

The object of a verb, or of a preposition, may be learned by asking 
the question formed by placing whom or what after the verb or the 
preposition; the answer to the question will be the object. 

"He struck me " Struck whom? Me. Here m,e denotes the object 
of the action asserted or expressed by the verb struck. 

"They go to school." To what? School. Here school denotes the 
object of the relation shown by the preposition to. 

Me and school are, therefore, in the objective case. 

Exercise I. — Name the nouns in the nominative, and those in the 
objective case in the following sentences, and give the reasons: — The Amer- 
icans defeated the British at the battle of New Orleans. The stars twinkle 
brightly in the sky. In Prussia, children are compelled to attend school. 
Washington died on the 14th day of December, in the year 1799. Many 



30 PARSING. 

a flower wastes its fragrance on the desert air. By industry only can we 
acquire a good education. Suspicion haunts the guilty mind. 

Exercise II. — Name, also, the ela<s of each noun, the number, the per- 
son, and the gender, with the reasons. 

PARSING. 

To Parse means to tell to what parts of speech words belong, to 
name their properties and relations, and to give the rules which apply 
to them. 

As the rule- arc given in Syntax only, they may he omitted at present 
in parsing. 

In parsing, it is well to name 1 1 t the word to l>c parsed; (2) the word 
or words with which it is grammatically connected; and (3) its properties, 

relation-, etc. 

Exbrcibi — Parse the nouns in the following sentence: — "The hoys 
found a bird's nest in tlie £r<<- 

Modi i - - /;..'/.■.'. — Hoys found. — " Boys" i- a noun, "A Koun is a word, 
etc."; — a common noun, because it i- used a- tin- name of anj collection of 

objects <>f tin- -aim- class;- in the |>lural number, because it denotes mure 

than one; — in the third person, because it denote- the persona mentioned; — 
of tin- masculine gender, because it denot the male sex; — in the 

nominative i1 is the Bubject of the verb found. 

■ -" I'.ir.l'-" i- a mum. "A \<>un i- a word, etc "; — 

a common noun, because if i- used a- tin name of anj object of the same 

in the singular number, because it denotes oi bject ; — in the third 

person, because it denotes the being mentioned; — of the masculine or the 

feminine gendt i ing of the male or the female sex; 

— in th«- |". ion. 

" i- a DOUn, *' A Noun i- a word. ete". — a 0000- 

mon noun, because it i- used a- tin- name of any object of the -aim- class; — 
in the singular numbi denotes one object ; — in the third person, 

because i< denotes tin' thing mentioned; — -if the neuter gender, because it 
denotes an object without sex }— in the objective case, because it is the object 
of the action as s e rted or expressed by the verb found. 

—In grove. — '< imve" i- a mum. " A Noun i- a word, I tc " a > "in- 

mon noun, because it i- used a- tin- name of any object of tin- -ami class;— 

in tin- singular number, because* it denotes <■"• objt ct — in the third person, 

. thing mentioned; — <if tin- neuter gender, because it 

an object wit Inn it sex ; — in tl bjectivecast because it is theobjeet 

of the relation shown by the prepositioi 

the noun* in the following l tad. increases tin- wealth 

of a country. Constant occupation prevents temptation. A man's character 



PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS. 31 

may be known by the books which he reads. A good name shouid be 
prized above riches. Every person's duty should be performed faithfully. 
During the Revolution the Americans fought for independence. The 
eagle's nest is built among the crags of the mountains. By too great eager- 
ness in the pursuit of our desires we frequently grasp at the shadow, and 
lose the substance. A house without books resembles a room without 
windows. "Water-lilies bloomed along the borders of the lake. Time spares 
the chiseled beauty of stone and marble, while it makes sad havoc in 
plaster and stucco. General Braddock's death was caused, not by the 
Indian's tomahawk, but by a bullet sent by one of his own soldiers. 

"The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me." 



PRONOUNS. 



A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun; as, Thomas 
deserves praise, for he has recited his lessons well." 

In this sentence the word he is used in place of the noun Thomas, 
and his in place of the noun Thomas's; he and his are, therefore, called 
pronouns, — a word which means "for nouns." 

A pronoun is used to avoid the unpleasant repetition of a noun. 

The noun for which a pronoun is used, is called the antecedent of the 
pronoun, because it generally precedes, or goes before, the pronoun; and 
the latter is said to represent its antecedent. 

PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS. 

As pronouns represent nouns, they have number, person, 
gender, and case, as nouns have. They have also declension. 

The number, the person, and the gender of a pronoun are the same 
as those of the noun which it represents ; but the case may be different. 



32 PERSOXAL PRONOUNS. 

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns are divided into throe classes; Personal, Rela- 
tive, and Interrogative. 

Personal Pronouns. 

A Personal Pronoun is one which shows by its form the 
person of the noun which it represents. 

Persona] pronouns arc Simple or Compound. 

The Simple Personal Pronouns are /, thou, he, she, and if. 
and their variations in the singular and in the plural. 

/ i> in the firsl person, and of the masculine or of the femi- 
nine gender. 

TlniK i> iii the second person, masculine or femine gender. 

Ill i> in the third person, masculine gender: she is in the 
third person, feminine gender: it is in the third person, neuter 
gender. 

The Declension of the Simple Personal Pronouns. 







^I\., 


1 1 \lt. 










1 'man. 

1. 


Tl 


tfoac 
He, 




She, 


V. uh-r. 
It. 




1 


my, or 
mine, 


thy. <>r 

thine, 


bis, 




her. nr 

here, 


its. 




Obj. 


in.-; 


thee; 

Pl i 


him; 
R \l . 




ber; 


it; 






we. 


you, or ye, 


they, 




they, 


they, 




r 


our. or 


your, or 


tli«-ir. 


nr 


their, or 


their. 


<>r 




OUTS, 

US. 


yajirs, 

Voll. 


the 


ire, 


theirs, 

them. 


the 


ire, 


Obi. 


i'i -;n. 


them. 





Remarks. 
Personal |>n>ni»im> in the fir-t and iii the second person <!<> no< need 
distind f<>nib to indicate their Lr'ii.l.r; ;i^ the -pecker and the pereoa 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 33 

or the object addressed are present or well known, the gender of the 
nouns representing them is apparent. 

As persons or things mentioned are not necessarily present, different 
forms 01 pronouns are required to indicate their sex. Hence, in the 
third person, he is used to represent the masculine gender, she to repre- 
sent the feminine, and it to represent the neuter. 

Ye, formerly common to the nominative and the objective case in the 
plural number, is still retained in the nominative, though rarely used. 

In the possessive case, my, thy, her, our, your, their, are used when the 
noun denoting the thing possessed is mentioned, and mine, thine, hers, 
ours, yours, theirs, when it is omitted; as, "This is my work." — "This 
work is mine." 

Mine and thine were formerly used before words beginning with a 
vowel sound; as, "All thine iniquities shall be forgiven." These forms 
are still used in poetry; as, "Time writes no wrinkles on thine azure 
brow. " 

The apostrophe (') should never be used in writing the forms of pro- 
nouns in the possessive case; thus, "It is yours," not your's; ours, 
not our's. 

In both numbers the idea of possession is made emphatic by using 
the adjective own in connection with the possessive forms; as, "You 
choose that course at your own risk." 

In the singular number, second person, the plural forms you, your 
and yours, are commonly used, though but one individual is addressed; 
as, "John, have you studied your lesson?" 

The form thou is used in prayers to God, in solemn language, and in 
poetry. 

It is often used without representing any particular antecedent; as, 
"It is raining." — "It is never right to steal." "It" is then used indefi- 
nitely, and may be called the Indefinite Personal Pronoun. 

Compound Personal Pronouns. 

Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by subjoining, in 
the singular, the noun self to the simple personal pronouns 
my, thy, him, her, and it; and, in the plural, the noun selves 
to our, your, and them. 

3 



34 COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The Compound Personal Pronouns are myself, thyself, 
himself, herself, and itself, and their plural forms ourselves, 
yourselves, and themselves. 

The Declension of the Compound Personal Pronouns. 

SINGULAR. 

First Person. Second Person. Third Person. 

Mate. <>r Fern. Mum-, or Fern. Muse. Fem. Neuter. 

Norn. Myself, Thyself, Himself. Herself. Itself, 



Oh}. myself; thyself; himself; herself; itself; 

PLURAL. 

Norn, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, themselves, themselves, 



Ohj. ourselves, yourselves, themselves, themselves, themselves. 

The compound personal pronouns have no form for the possessive 
case either in the singular <>r in tlie plural number. 

The form yourself is commonly used when a single individual is ad- 
dressed; :i>. "< rive yourself no concern," for, "< rive thyself no concern." 

l.\i a< i-i I I' ll the number, the person, the </<>/</<>•. and i!i«' case, <>f 
the following pronouns;— His, themselves, 1. its, your, mine, theirs, 
we, here, us, you, myself, me, himself, my, herself, thine, them. 

BxBBCisi II Pane the personal pronouns in the following sentence: 
\ the boj • med honest, I employed him." 

M i.s. — /. — I (the speaker) employed.- "I" a :i personal pr tun, 

\ p< rsonal Pronoun is one, etc."; i" 'I"' singular number, first person, 
of the maso. or the fem. gender, because the noun ■//<< </</»/< oj tin epeaker, 
which it represents, is; in the nominative case, because 
it is the Bubjert <>( the verb empL 

1 1 mi Employed him (6oy).— " Him" i» :i personal pronoun, "A Personal 
Pronoun is oni he singular number, tliiril person, <>f the mascu- 

line gender, because the noun boy which it represents, is; — in the objective 
ease, beoaust rl ii '!■• objecl of » I ± • - action expressed by th<- verb employed. 
the pronoufu In tl><- following sentenot 

You have done the mischief and I bear the bis Love thy neighbor 

:i- thoulovesl thyself. This glorious land is ours. The slanderer only in- 
jnriil himself in In- attempt to injure his neighbor. The >-"il is noted f<>r 
its fertility: it produces two orops yearly. Keep thy ln;irt with nil «lili- 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 35 

gence, for out of it are the issues of life. Man makes his own language; 
but he makes it as the bee makes her cell, as the bird her nest. My mother 
began to instruct me at an early age; as she had no other child, you may 
imagine how eager she was for my improvement. The boys failed to re- 
cite their lessons, but the girls had their task well prepared. 

Exercise III. — Parse also the nouns in the preceding sentences. 

Relative Pronouns. 

A Relative Pronoun is one which relates directly to some 
preceding noun or pronoun and introduces a clause; as, 
"Thomas, who came late, was not admitted." — "He who 
wins, may laugh." 

Relative Pronouns have no separate forms to distinguish the different 
persons, as the personal pronouns have. The person is determined 
by the antecedent, with which the relative always agrees in number, 
person and gender. 

The relative and its antecedent are not contained in the same part 
of a sentence. The clause contains the relative and is connected by 
it with the antecedent. 

Relative pronouns are of two kinds; Simple and Com- 
pound. 

Simple Relatives. 
The Simple Relative Pronouns are who, which, what, and 
that. 

The Declension of the Simple Relatives. 



That, 
that; 

that, 
that. 







SINGULAR. 




Nom. 


Who, 


Which, 


What, 


Poss. 


whose, 


whose, 





Obj. 


whom; 


which; 

PLURAL. 


what; 


Nom. 


who, 


which, 


what, 


Poss. 


whose, 


whose, 





Obj. 


whom. 


which. 


what. 



3G COMPOUND RELATIVES. 

Remarks. 

Who is used in referring to persons. It is, therefore, masculine or 
feminine, according to the gender of Its antecedent; as, "Napoleon, 
who (masc.) was Emperor of France." — "Elizabeth, wlio (Jem.) was 
Queen of England." 

Which is used in referring to inferior animals and to things without 
life. It is, therefore, masculine, feminine, or neuter, according to the 
gender of its antecedent; as, "The deer which (ma.se. or Jon.) was killed." 
— "The flower which [noil.) was plucked." 

What i- used in referring to things without life only. It is, therefore, 
always of the neuter gender. 

What is equivalent to //" thing which (or that which) in the singular, 
and to th> things which (or those which) in the plural: thus, " He obtained 
what be wanted," in the singular means, "He obtained the thing 
which he wanted;" and in the plural. "He obtained the things which 

he wanted. 

What, in meaning, includes the antecedent (thing) and the relative 
(which); it has. therefore, a double use, or connection, and is in two 
cases at the same time; as, "What be said, seemed true." In this sen- 
tence, what is in the nominative case, being the subjeel of the verb 
seemed; it is also in the objective case, being the object of the action 
asserted bj the verb said. 

Sometimes what in each ..t" it- constructions may be in the nominative 
or in the objective case; or, in one construction it may be in the nomina- 
tive case, ami iii the other, in the objective. 

That is sometimes used in referring to persons, animals, or things. 
It is of the masculine, the feminine, or the neuter gender, according to 
the gender of it- ante, .dent . as, "The same person thai i masc. or Jon.) 
I knew." "The newest book thai mi be sold." 

That i- often used for who, whom, or which; as, "The first boy that 
dls." "The same man that (whom) we met." "All the money 
ich i be had. was lost " 

Compound Relatives. 
The Compound Relative Pronouns are formed l»y subjoin- 
ing the word ever or soever to the simple relatives who, 

which, and trlial. 



COMPOUND RELATIVES. 



37 



The Compound Relatives are whoever, whosoever, which- 
ever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever. 



The Declension of the Compound Relatives. 



Nominative. 
Whoever, 
Whosoever, 
Whichever, 
Whichsoever, 
Whatever, 
Whatsoever, 



SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

Possessive. 
whosever, 
whosesoever, 



Objective. 
whomever, 
whomsoever, 
whichever, 
whichsoever, 
whatever, 
whatsoever. 



Remarks. 

The gender of the compound relatives is the same as that of the simple 
relatives from which they are formed. 

Whoever and whosoever are used when reference is made to persons 
only. 

Whichever and whichsoever are used when reference is made to per- 
sons, animals, or things without life. 

Whatever and whatsoever are used when reference is made to things 
without life only. 

A compound relative includes, in meaning, an antecedent and a 
simple relative; thus, tvhoever and whosoever mean any one who; which- 
ever and whichsoever mean any one which; and whatever and whatsoever 
mean any thing which, or all things which. 

Compound relatives have a douple construction, and (like what) are 
in two cases at the same time; as, "He told whoever heard him to obey 
without delay. " Here whoever is in the objective case, being the object 
of the action asserted by the verb told, and is also in the nominative case, 
being the subject of the verb heard. 

Which and what, and their compounds, are called Pronominal Adjec- 
tives when they limit nouns, and Adjective Pronouns when they represent 
nouns. 



38 INTERROGATIVE PROXOUXS. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is one which is used to ask a ques- 
tion; as, "Who discovered America?" — " Whose book did 
you find?" — "Whom did you meet in Paris?" 

The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, and what. 

Whether, meaning which one o] the two, was formerly used as an in- 
terrogative; but it is now obsolete, as a pronoun. 

The interrogates are declined like the simple relative pronouns. 

Remarks. 

Who is used in asking about persons; as, " Who banished Napoleon?" 
— "Who invented gunpowder?" 

Which and what are used in asking about persons, animals, or things 
without life; a>, "Which of the men escaped?" — "Which of the horses 
won the race?" "Whatishel A. poet." 

In asking aboul persons, who inquires t'<»r the name of the individual, 
which for the particular individual meant, and what for a description; 
as, " Who was that gentleman ? Franklin." "Which Franklin? Ben- 
jamin Franklin." "What was be? A philosopher." 

An interrogative pronoun has no antecedent; l>nt it refers to some 
word in the answer, called the subsequent, with which it usually agrees 
in Dumber, person, and gender; as, "Who improved the telescope? 
Her cheL" 



When u^ed to answer direct or apparent questions, who, which, and 
what, do not relate to any antecedent or subsequent, but are used indefi- 
nitely, and may be called Indefinite Relative Pronouns. 

When which and what are placed before nouns to ask questions, they 
arc called Interrogativt Pronominal Adjectives. 

i- fob Parsing Simpli Relatives. "Webster, 
who died in 1862, «:■- an eminent statesman *' 

a ho" is :> relative pronoun, "A Relative 
Pronoun i- one, etc ." it i- in the singular number, thir.l person, and "f the 
masculine gender, because its antecedent Webster to which it relate 
in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb dud*. 
"What lie desired, was given o> him 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 39 

What. — What was given — desired what. — "What" is a relative pronoun, 
"A Relative Pronoun is one, etc.," and, in meaning, includes both ante- 
cedent and relative (thing which) ; it is in the singular number, third person, 
and of the neuter gender, because its antecedent (not mentioned) to which 
it relates, is; — in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb 
was given; it is also in the objective case, because it is the object of the 
action asserted by the verb desired. 

Compound Relatives. — "Men respect whoever tries to do his duty." 

Whoever. — Respect whoever — whoever tries. — "Whoever" is a compound 
relative pronoun, "A Compound Relative Pronoun is formed, etc.," and, 
in meaning, includes both antecedent and relative (him who or any one 
who) ; it is in the singular number, third person, and of the masculine gen- 
der, because its antecedent (not mentioned) to which it relates, is; — in the 
objective case, because it is the object of the action asserted by the verb 
respect; it is also in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb 
tries. 

Interhogatives. — "Who lost the book? Mary." 

Who. — (Mary) who lost. — "Who" is an interrogative pronoun, "An 
Interrogative Pronoun is one, etc.;" it is in the singular number, third 
person, and of the feminine gender, because its subsequent Mary is; — in 
the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb lost. 

"Which escaped from the prison?" 

Which. — Which escaped. — "Which" is an interrogative pronoun, "An 
Interrogative Pronoun is one, etc.;" it agrees with some subsequent word 
(not mentioned) in some number, person, and gender which cannot be deter- 
mined ; — in the nominative case because it is the subject of the verb escaped. 

Indefinite Relatives. — "He said that he did not know who founded 
Rome." 

Who. — Who founded. — "Who" is an indefinite relative pronoun, An 
Indefinite Relative Pronoun is one which relates to no word antecedent or 
subsequent ; its number, person, and gender cannot be determined ; — in the 
nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb founded. 

Parse all the relative and the interrogative pronouns in the following sen- 
tences: — He who is truthful, is trusted. The field, which was ploughed, 
now waves with ripening grain. The fire, which the hunters lighted, 
burned the dry grass of the prairie. The sun disperses the clouds which 
obscured his rising. Who invented the steam engine? James Watt. 
Pope says, "Whatever is, is right." What did Newton discover? Who 
first landed on the shores of North America? He forgets who burned 
Moscow. What did the man say? I did not hear what he said. Do with 
thy might whatsoever thy duty demands. The first man that proposed 
the law, violated it. The wisdom which the Bible teaches, should be 
treasured in the heart. 

The happiness which a good conscience gives, is superior to all earthly 
enjoyment. He prayeth well, who loveth well. Whoever sows, shall reap. 



40 ARTICLES. 

The injuries which we inflict, and the injuries which we suffer, are seldom 
weighed in the same balance. The man who improperly reveals a secret 
injures himself and also injures him to whom he reveals it. The sword 
of wit, like the scythe of time, cuts down friend and foe, and attacks every 
thing that lies in its way. 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouns and the personal pronouns in the fore- 
going sentences. Write sentences containing different kinds of pronouns. 



ARTICLES. 



An Article i> the word the, or a or (in, which is used before 
a noun to limit it^ meaning; as, The sun, the earth, an eagle, 
a man. 

There are two articles; The, and A or An. 

The i> called the Definite Article, because it shows that some 
object or collection of objects i> referred to in a definite man- 
ner; a-. The Revolution, tin army, tlir cities. 

A i- called tin- Indefinite Article, because it shows that an 
ibject i- referred to in an indefinite manner; as, .1 battle, an 
army, <> book. 

The definite article may refer to one object or group, or to more than 
one; as, The tret . the trees; tin- army, tin- armies. 

The indefinite article can refer to one object, or to one group only; as, 
.1 man, "" army. 

ad mi an- the same in meaning, but they differ in use. 

An \- used before a word which, when uttered, begins with a vowel 
sound; as, , I " acorn, <m honor. I - i- also properly used before a word 
which begins with /' ami i- accented on the second syllable; as, .1" his- 
torical i 

I is u word w hfteh, n ben uttered, begins w ith a consonant 

sound; a-. I watch, " unit, n youth. 

I \i it. i-i l I . ll before which <<( Ihe following words </ should 1>< used, 
and before which <in should l»- used, and give 1 1 » • - reasons \ppl<-. Bar, 
entry, honest, lior-<-. Indian, onion, anion, European, watch. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 41 

youth, unit, umbrella, orchard, ewer, iron, power, hour, history, 
yew, humane, eye, hero, heroic, hickory, hiatus, unfitness, usurper. 

Exercise II. — Parse the articles in the following sentence: — 

"The child draws a coach." 

Models. — The. — The child. — "The" is an article; "An Article is the 
word, etc."; — the definite article because it refers to the noun child in a 
definite manner. 

A. — A coach. — "A" is an article; "An Article is the word, etc."; — the 
indefinite article, because it refers to the noun coach in an indefinite manner. 

Parse the articles in the following sentences: — 

An amusing story was read to the children. The sun shines during the 
day. The old peddler sat upon a stone by the wayside. The conduct of an 
honorable boy should be imitated. A rose plucked from the bush will 
soon droop. The spring clothes the earth with beauty. An honest boy 
will never hesitate to tell the truth, whatever consequences may happen 
to him. The humane act of the merchant gained him friends. A mist 
arose from the valley, and formed a cloud which hung over the top of the 
mountain. The present age has carried the useful arts to a high degree 
of perfection. A heavy fall of snow rendered the roads impassable for 
many days. 

Exercise III. — Parse the nouns and the pronouns in the preceding 
sentences. 

Exercise IV. — Write ten sentences, each containing the indefinite 
article a or an properly used. 



ADJECTIVES. 



An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a noun 
or a pronoun; as, Ripe apples; three wise men; unhappy me. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives may be divided into the following classes: 
Proper, Common, Numeral, and Pronominal. 

A Proper Adjective is one derived from a proper noun; as, 
American, English, Edisonian. 



42 PROXOMIXAL ADJECTIVES. 

A Common Adjective is one which describes or limits a noun 
or a pronoun, but which is not derived from a proper noun; 
as, hottest, numerous, perfect. 

A Numeral Adjective is one which denotes a definite num- 
ber; as, two, third, .single. 

Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds; Cardinal, Ordinal, and 
Multiplicative. 

The Cardinals denote how many; as, nine, ninety. 

The Ordinals denote urihr: as, ninth, ninetieth. 

The Multiplicatives denote how many fold; as, single, double or 
twofold, trifle or threefold. 

Remarks. 

Adjectives, like nouns, may be compound in form; as, sweet-scented 
clover; home-made bread; the Anglo-Saxon race. 

Most numeral adjectives may !>.• regarded as complex in form; as, 
One hundred mid nint dollars; the two hundred and truth page. 

A noun becomes an adjective w hen it is used to describe another noun; 
as, Odd chain Croton water, iVwi castings. 

Adjectives an- sometimes used as nouns, and. as such, have all the 
properties of nouns; as, "The good will be rewarded.'* -"The little 
that In- had was losl ;" thousands of dollars; our inferiors. 

Exbbcisj Name the adjecti es in the following sentences, tell i" which 
each belongs add x>\<- the reason: — 

The ripe grain was cut. A single mistake ma> cause a ^r. .. ( loss, The 
fur <>f the Siberian s,|inrnl is sold at exorbitant prices, Spain was ones 
under tin- M.i<>rish dominion. The solemn erow was perched upon the 
leafless branch at tin- aged elm Now come the Boft, Bmoky days of de- 
lightful weather, which will soon !»• followed by tin- sharp Mast- of bleak 
December. High-sounding sentences Bhould n<a l» used in common con- 
versation, Fifty-four dollars were found in a secret drawer. Jefferson 
and Adams died on the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of taneriean 
Independence, I never knew "f an early-rising, hard-working, prudent man, 
careful <>f bis earnings, and strictly honest, who complained <>f bad Luck. 

Pronominal Adjectives. 
A Pronominal Adjective is one which either limits a noun 
mentioned, or represents m noun understood; as, " This task 
is difficult." " This is a difficult task." 



PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, ETC. 43 

In the first example, this "limits" the noun task, and is used as an 
adjective; in the second, this "represents" the noun task, and is used 
as a pronoun. When so used it is better to call it an Adjective Pronoun. 

A pronominal adjective may be parsed as an adjective when the noun 
is mentioned, and as an adjective pronoun when the noun is omitted; 
or the noun may be supplied and the pronominal may always be parsed 
as an adjective simply. 

Pronominal adjectives are of three kinds; Distributive, 
Demonstrative, and Indefinite. 

The Distributive Pronominal Adjectives are so called because 
they limit or represent the names of objects taken separately 
or singly. 

The principal distributives are each, every, either, and 
neither. 

They always refer to nouns in the singular number. 

The Demonstrative Pronominal Adjectives are so called 
because they limit or represent the names of objects in a 
definite or particular manner. 

The principal demonstratives are this, that, these, and those. 

This and that refer to nouns in the singular number; these and those 
to nouns in the plural number. 

The Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives are so called because 
they limit or represent the names of objects in an indefinite 
manner. 

The principal indefinites are all, another, any, none, one, 
other, some, such, etc. 

Remarks. 

Another is declined like a noun, in the singular number only. One and 
other are declined in both numbers. 

The following may also be classed among the pronominal adjectives ; 
both, enough, few, former, latter, little, less, least, much, many, more, 
most, same, several, and a few others. 



44 EXERCISES. 

What, whatever, and whatsoever, are often used as relative pronouns 
and pronominal adjectives at the same time; as, "Perform what duties 
devolve upon you;" that is, those duties which, etc. When so used 
they are called Relative Pronominal Adjectives. 

Which and what, and their compounds, when placed licfore nouns to 
ask questions, are called Interrogative Pronominal Adjectives; in other 
instances they are simply pronominal adjectives; as, "What prepara- 
tions have been made?" — "The sun gives light by day; which fact 
is ol.vious." 

A pronominal adjective may sometimes represent a noun which is 
not mentioned; in such cases the -render cannot be determined; the 
Dumber and the person an- determined by the form, or by the sense in 
which tin' pronominal adjective is used; as, ".1// seemed satisfied with 
the explanation." 

Bxebcibe L—Modeib fob Pronominal Adjectives. 
" These rules include th< 

—These rules. — "These" La a demonstrative pronominal adjec- 
tive, "A Demonstrative Pronominal Adjective i- one, etc."; it limits the 
noun r 

ee" is a Demonstrative Adjective Pro- 
aoun, " \ Demonstrative Adjective Pronoun i- one, > ■;■• ". In tin* sen- 
tence it represents tin- noun rules; it i.-. therefore, in the plural Dumber, 
thiril person, neuter gender; - In the objective case, because it is the object 
nf the action asm rted bj the verb include. 

, oa i;> i \ 1 1\ i Pbonomim m Adji I i i\ i - 
•li. used I* i, .a books he oould find 

What.— Wha1 \ whal -"What" is a relative pronominal 

adjective (thorn which). As a pronom. adj. it limits the doud book* \ ■ 
relative pronoun it relates to the noun books, with which it agrees, In the 
plural number, third person, neuter gender; — it i- in the objective case, be- 
cause it is the object "f the action asserted by the verb could find. 

the prono m inal adjectives and Adjective Pronouns in the following 
senteni • 

hour of every day has its duties This method is better than that 
is. Tht 'Hi was made l>\ l>oil> Neither criminal confe s s e d 

Ms guilt. Much <an 1m- accomplished l>\ a judicious arrangement of labor. 
All i- not j:"l.| that glitters Tin ■ miser never thinks that he ha- enough, 
uwaya striving for more. What books are needed for tliis class? 
All men must die, l>nt all do not die the same death. Which candidate 
was elected? Either of them will please me, although I prefer that one. 
li- overcame what difficulties he encountered 1 need not say what ■ 
field of useful] made to accomplish 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES, ETC. 45 

the purpose, but none succeeded. Two men offered themselves; both, on 
examination, were found to be competent, but, as one brought satisfactory 
recommendations, while the other had none to offer, the former was 
accepted, and the latter at length perceived that, in some instances at 
least, integrity is essential to success. 

Exercise IT. — Parse the nouns, the pronouns, and the articles in the 
preceding sentences. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

The Inflection of adjectives is called Comparison. 

Many adjectives are capable of comparison; they are 
chiefly the common adjectives. 

The Comparison of an adjective is the changes of its form 
to denote different degrees of quantity. 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison ; the Positive, 
the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

The Positive Degree is that form of an adjective which is 
used to denote simply a quality; as, wise, happy, small. 

The Comparative Degree is that form of an adjective which 
is used to denote a quality in the higher or a lower degree than 
that denoted by the positive; as, wiser, happier. 

The Superlative Degree is that form of an adjective which 
is used to denote the quality in the highest or the lowest 
degree; as, wisest, happiest, smallest. 

The Formation of Comparatives and Superlatives. 

Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared by suf- 
fixing to the positive er to form the comparative, and est to 
form the superlative; as, positive sweet, comparative sweeter, 
superlative sweetest. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are generally com- 
pared by placing before the positive more or less to form the 
comparative, and most or least to form the superlative; as, 
pos. truthful, comp. more truthful, sup. most truthful; pos. 
pleasant, comp. less pleasant, sup. least pleasant. 



46 IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

Dissyllables ending with y or e are generally compared 
by suffixing to the positive er to form the comparative, and 
est to form the superlative; as, pos. happy, comp. happier, 
sup. happiest; pos. simple, comp. simpler, sup. simplest. 

Irregular Comparison. 
The following adjectives are compared irregularly:- 



Posit ire. 


< Comparative. Superlative. 


Good, 


better, 


best. 


Bad, evil, or 


ill, worse, 


worst. 


Much, <>r many, more, 


most. 


Little, 


less, 


least. 


Tli,' following 


an- compared l» 


ith regularly and irregn- 


larly: — 






/'n.iitirr. 


Comparative, 


Superlative. 


Near, 


nearer, 


Dearest, next. 


Late, 


later, latter, 


latest, last. 


Old, 


older, elder, 


oldest, eldest. 


The following 


and a few others li 


me the superlative ending 


with most: — 






Pet ' 


„t,,e. 


Superlative. 


Far, 


farther, 


farther, farthermost. 


Pore, 


former, 


first, foremost. 


Hind. 


hinder, 


hindermost, hindmost. 


Low, 


lower. 


lowest, lowermost. 


Up, 


upper. 

Remarks. 


uppermost. 



Such adjectives a- anterior, mj.rinr, previous, preferable, superior, 
ulterior, and ;i fen others, suggest the idea <>f comparison, bul do not 

admit it- form-. 



EXERCISES. 47 

When a comparison is implied, these adjectives are followed by to, 
and not by than, as comparatives usually are; as, "This event was ante- 
rior to the Revolution." 

Numeral adjectives, most proper and pronominal adjectives, those 
denoting material, position, or shape, and a few others, such as whole, 
universal, exact, supreme, etc., by reason of their use and meaning, are 
not compared. 

The comparative and the superlative forms of adjectives which strictly 
express qualities incapable of being increased or diminished, are fre- 
quently used by the best writers and speakers; as, "We, the people of 
the United States, in order to form a more perfect union." 

Exercise I. — Corn-pare such of the following adjectives as admit com- 
parison: — Noble, ill, soft, humble, pleasant, skilful, juicy, sour, 
generous, few, handsome, dry, many, certain, far, old, round, 
acceptable, intelligent, thoughtless, lovety, warm, timid, diligent, 
cheerful, brave, tough, fore, late, circular, ill-mannered, universal, 
supreme, good-natured, perfect, sad, evil-minded, sure, Roman, 
near, Christian, preferable. 

Exercise II. — Use adjectives before the following nouns, and tell to 
what class each adjective belongs: — Sun, moon, nation, army, lady, 
prairie, rock, tree, lake, ' Congress, Russia, dollar, eloquence, 
commander, industry, obedience, happiness, war, books, face, 
pride, home, life, tyrant, pleasure, mind, mountain, valley, ocean, 
bear, tiger, deer, rose, lily, Blaine, Peary. 

Exercise III. — Parse the adjectives in the following sentence: — "Few 
persons had nobler qualities than the two friends." 

Models. — Few. — Few persons. — "Few" is a pronominal adjective, "A 
Pronominal Adjective is, etc."; — it can be compared (pos. few, comp. fewer, 
sup. fewest); — in the positive degree; it limits the noun persons. 

Nobler. — Nobler qualities. — "Nobler" is an adjective, "An Adjective is 
a word, etc.";— it can be compared (pos. noble, comp. nobler, sup. noblest); 
— in the comparative degree; it describes the noun qualities. 

Two. — Two friends. — "Two" is a numeral adjective, "A Numeral Adjec- 
tive is one, etc."; cardinal, because it denotes how many; it cannot be com- 
pared; it limits the noun friends. 

Parse all the adjectives in the following sentences: — 

The swift hound pursues the timid hare. Tall trees cast long shadows. 
Nevada furnishes much gold and silver. The wind roars through the leaf- 
less forest. Art is long, and time is fleeting. Seven men in ancient Greece 
were famous for their wisdom. This important principle has a threefold 



48 VERBS. 

application. He is unhappy because he has been false. If he were less 
timid, he would be more successful. He paid ten thousand dollars for 
that farm English literature was very nourishing during the latter half 
of the sixteenth and the first of the seventeenth century. 

Swedish iron is suitable for the manufacture of steel on account of ite 
hardness Had you such leisure to gaze upon these secrets ,,1 the deep: 
In what sens- are all men born free and equal? Remote from the no.se 
of the busy world, in a quiel and secluded nook, stood a vine-clad cottage; 
a silver Stream ran near it; trees in their natural wildness and beauty 
shaded it from the fierce rays of .he noon-day sun: the humble Violet and 
the pale-faced lily wafted their delicious perfume on the air. By some 
strange chance the leasl worthy competitor was chosen. 

Exekcisi [V— Parse the nouns, the pronouns, and the articles ...the 
foregoing oontaining different k.mls of adjec- 



tives. 



VERBS. 



\ Verb is a word used to assert action, being, or state; 

as, "James runt." "He does something." "1 am here."— 

"The child sleeps.*' 

So assemblage of words can make complete sense without the use 

, mentioned or understood; nor can any sentence be termed 

without a subject, which is a ......... a pp.,,,,,.,,. or a number ..t words 

taken as a noun, about which something is aatertetL 

.,,> i„ the following *■•»- 

itudies diligently." 

lhCaCt ' M — ll'V.he 

• ' "' Jame* . , 

; r ploughs. King. rule. John plays Mary sews neatfr. 

The full n shines. Th« I " '" >'> .' '" ""j B » r . ' 

K dee, Ml The child dee, undly I •■■ «n» ripens 1 

Ho. iwiftl, the sparrow flieal The s« the hd tep.. " 
heard the noise? The rrdeert gold sunk to the bottom. What . terribk 

ac^tha^P^onttoriveri r struck Urn 

Leaa 



CLASSES OF VERBS ACCORDING TO MEANING. 49 

Classes of Verbs According to Meaning. 

Verbs are divided, according to their use and meaning, 
into two classes; Transitive and Intransitive. 

A Transitive Verb is one which has an object, or which re- 
quires an object to complete the sense ; as, " He saw the eagle." 
— "The earth hath bubbles, as the water has (bubbles)." 

An Intransitive Verb is one which has no object, or which 
does not require an object to complete the sense; as, "Birds 
fly." — "Truth is mighty." — "He opened his eyes and saw." 
— "Experience teaches better than books." 

Remarks. 

A transitive verb asserts action only, and such action as is always 
exerted upon some person or thing called the object; as, "The sun warms 
the earth." — "The boy struck his friend." 

An intransitive verb asserts being or state, — or action not exerted upon 
any person or thing; as, "The sky is clear." — "The traveler sits by 
the roadside." — "The wind blows." 

Some verbs, though alike in form, differ in class according to meaning; 
as, "James returned (trans.) the book." — "James returned (intrans.) 
to his home. " 

A verb which is usually intransitive sometimes becomes transitive, 
especially when an object is added having a meaning similar to that of 
the verb; as, "The miser lives a life of care." — "And he dreamed yet 
another dream." 

Intransitive verbs also become transitive when they have a causative 
meaning; as, "The company ran an extra train of cars." — "The planters 
grow cotton and sugar." These expressions are inelegant, but custom 
has authorized their use. 

Exercise. — Mention the verbs in the following sentences, and tell which 
are transitive, and which are intransitive; and give the reasons : — 

Models. — "James studies his lessons, while John is idle." 

Studies. — James studies lessons. — "Studies" is a verb, "A Verb is a 
word, etc."; — transitive, because it has an object (lessons). 

Is. — John is. — "Is". is a verb, "A Verb is a word, etc."; — intransitive, 
because it has no object. 

4 



50 PROPERTIES OF VERBS-VOICE. 

Labor sweetens pleasure. Bonaparte died an exile. The lightning 
glanced from the clouds and struck the oak. While he spoke all listened. 
The wind blew furiously and shook the house. Milton, the poet, became 
blind. The good man departs and leaves a blessing behind. The artist 
who painted the picture deserves praise. Louis Napoleon wrote a "Life 
of Caesar." The rivulet flows with a noiseless current. A man dies, 
but a nation lives. When people are determined to quarrel, a straw will 
furnish the occasion. We mounted our horses and rode homeward. 

Properties of Verbs. 
The properties of verbs arc Voice, Mode, Tense, Number, 
and Person. 

Voice. 

Voice is that property of a transitive verl> which shows 
whether the subject, or nominative, doe* or nee ice* the action 

asserted by the veil). 

Voice Im-1< .iilt- t" transitive verbs only. 

There jut two voices; the Active and the Passive. 

The Active Voice is that form <>f a transitive verb which 
shows that the subject dots the action asserted by the verb; 
a-. " Henry <-<irri<s- the basket." 

In thU sentence the subject Henry does the action asserted 

by the verb carries. 

The Passive Voice is that form of a transitive verb winch 
BhoWS that the subject receives the action asserted by the 

verb; a-, "The basket is <nrri<</ by Henry." 

Iii tlii-- sentence the subject basket does not act, but it re- 
ceives the action asserted by the verb is carried. 

Remarks. 

When the active voice <>f a verb i^ changed t<> the passive voire, the 
object "f the action asserted by tin- verb in tin- active voice always 
becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice, and the subject 
of the verb in the active void- becomes, in tin- passage, the object of the 
relation denoted by ;t preposition; that i^. the subject ami the object 
exehangt eases, the action remaining tin- same. 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS— MODE. 51 

Although intransitive verbs have no voice, yet they have the form of 
the active voice. 

Sometimes an intransitive verb, when followed by a preposition, may 
take the form of the passive voice; as, "The event was looked for." — 
"Virtue is sneered at very often. " Was looked for and is sneered at, are 
parsed as complex verbs in the passive voice. 

A few intransitive verbs have sometimes the form of the passive 
voice, but the sense is not changed, because the subject remains in the 
nominative case; as, "Summer is gone," for, "Summer has gone." — 
"He is come," for, "He has come." 

Although such expressions are sometimes elegantly used, it is gen- 
erally better to employ the form of the active voice. 

Exercise. — Name the verbs in the following sentences, tell which are 
transitive and which intransitive, and the voice of each, and give the 
reasons :— 

Models. — "James was esteemed because he performed all his duties." 

IF as esteemed. — James was esteemed. — "Was esteemed" is a verb, "A 
Verb is a word which, etc."; — transitive, because the action which it as- 
serts, is exerted upon some object; — in the passive voice, because it shows 
that the subject James receives the action asserted by the verb was esteemed. 

Performed. — He performed duties. — "Performed" is a verb, "A Verb is, 
etc."; — trans., because it has an object (duties) ; — in the act. voice, because 
it shows that the subject he does the action asserted by the verb performed. 

He is loved by all. Temperance preserves the body in health. The 
battle was fought on the banks of the river. Attend to your business 
yourself, if you wish it to prosper. The French elected Napoleon. We 
should improve our time by study. His hours were spent in idleness. The 
scholars write correctly. Orthography is taught in spelling books. The 
money was returned by the borrower. The king returned to his capital. 
God, who made the world, governs it. His wisdom was acquired by bitter 
experience. Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay. Not a berry was found, not 
a kernel remained. 

Mode. 

Mode is that property of a verb which distinguishes in what 
manner the action, the being, or the state, asserted by the 
verb, is expressed. 

Verbs have five modes; the Indicative, the Potential, the 
Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. 



52 PROPERTIES OF VERBS— MODE. 

The Indicative Mode is that form of a verb which is used 
to express a positive assertion; as, "Washington commanded 
the American army." 

A verb in the indicative mode may also be used to ask a question, and 
to express uncertainty or contingency; as, "IJ7io invented the art of 
printing?" — "If he has gone- I do not know it." 

The Potential Mode is that form of the verb which is used 
to express possibility, liberty, power, or necessity; as, "I can 
go." — " He must study." 

A verb in the potential mode may also be used to ask a question, and 
to ex pr ess uncertainty or contingency; as, " May I got" -"If I may go, 
I certainly will (go ." 

The Subjunctive Mode is that form of the verb which is used 
to express the action, the being, or the state, asserted by the 
verb, as desirable, uncertain, or as subject to some condition; 
as, "If he come, he will be received." — "O that 1 were 
happy!" -"If this be true, all will end well." 

A verb in the subjunctive > le always depends upon a verb in some 

otlu-r mode, and is connected with it by one of the conjunctions, //. 
although, unless, except, whether, though, lest, etc. 

The Imperative Mode i- that form of the verb which is used 
to express entreaty, permission, command, <>r exhortation; as, 

"Attend to my directions."- "Grant my request." — "Come 

when you Wish." 

Tin- subject of a verb in the imperative mode, which is either tlmu or 
you, is usually omitted, bul it must l»' mentioned in parsing. 

The Infinitive Mode i- thai form of the verb which is w^'A 
to express an action, a being, or a state, which is not limited 
to a subject; as, "To fove" — "He tries to study." 

Remarks. 

1. A verb is Baid to 1»- finite when the action, the being, or the state, 
which it asserts, is limit. -<l to ,i subject, or nominative. 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS— TENSE. 53 

2. Verbs in the infinitive mode are called Infinitives. 

3. Verbs in the indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the 
imperative mode, are finite verbs. 

4. A verb in the infinitive mode depends upon the word which it 
limits, or completes in meaning, — usually a verb, an adjective, or a 
noun; as, "I wish to go. " — "It is too late to go. " — " It is time to go. " 

To, a part of the infinitive, is omitted after the active voice of a few 
verbs; as, "I did not see him (to) come." And also after such verbs as 
bid, make, pray, etc.; as, "I pray you come with me." — "I bade him do 
his duty." 

The infinitive mode is often equivalent in its use and meaning to a 
verbal or participial noun; that is, it may be used as a noun in the nomi- 
native or in the objective case; as, " To play is healthful." 

Exekcise. — Name the verbs in the following sentences, tell to which 
class each belongs, and its voice and mode, and give the reasons: — 

Model. — "Example teaches better than precept." 

Teaches. — Example teaches. — "Teaches" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, 
etc."; — intrans., because it has no object; — it has no voice, because it is an 
intrans. verb; — in the indie, mode, because it is used to express a positive 
assertion. 

Oxen draw carts. A bird can fly. The rain causes the grass to grow. 
I will remain, but you may go. All that live must die. The faithful ser- 
vant should be rewarded. She could have returned whenever she wished. 
He must increase, but I must decrease. If a man strive honestly, he may 
expect to succeed. All this passed much more quickly than I can write it. 
To relieve the poor is a source of pleasure. Love thy neighbor as thyself. 
Whatever you do, do well. Though he fall, he will rise again. It is time 
to go. My son, forget not my law. Mohammed fled from Mecca. The 
fruits are gathered in Autumn. I saw the storm arise. 

Tense. 

Tense is that property of the verb which distinguishes the 
time of the action, the being, or the state, asserted by the verb. 

There are six tenses; the Present, the Past, the Future, 
the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the Future Perfect. 

The present, the past, and the future tense represent divisions of time 
into present, past, and future. The other three tenses represent time 
relatively present, past, or future, according to their use or their connec- 
tion with other verbs. 



54 TEXSE. 

The Present Tense is that form of the verb which is used 
to express present time; as, "I learn." — "Thou art loved." — 
"He is writing a letter." 

The present tense denotes what now is, what now takes 
place, or what is now taking place. 

The present tense also denotes what is habitual, or what is always 
true; as, "Vice produces misery." — "He said that the earth ?.s- round." 

The present tense IS often used in narrative to describe more vividly 
what took place in past time; as, "Hancock advances with his troops 
and bridles through their ranks." 

The present tense sometimes refers to future time when preceded by 
a relative pronoun, or by token, <ijt< r. before, as soon as, etc; as, " He will 
treat kindly, all whom he receives," — "He will jxo when he becomes 
ready. " 

The Past Tense is that form of the verb which is used to 
express past time; as, "He was a good man." — "He fought 
a battle."- -" I !«• was dying when I entered." 

Thepasl tense denotes what was, what took place, or what 

was taking place. 

The jia^t tense expresses time which is fully past, however recenl or 
remote that time may be; a>, "I saw William a moment since."— "I 
smc him yesterday." "I met him many i/mrs ago." 

Tlif Future Tense i-> that form <»f the verb which is usn\ to 
express fuiwre time merely; a^, "I shall leam." — "Spring 
trill come" — ''He will be famous." 

The future trust- denotes what shall or will be, what shall 

or Will take place, <>r what shall or will lie taking place. 

Hie Present Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which is 
USed tO express past time connected irith the present; as, "I 

have harmd." "Tlmu hast been loved." "He has written 
a Inter to-day." 
The present perfect tense denotes what has been, wh&i has 



THE TENSES OF THE DIFFERENT MODES. 55 

taken place, or what has been taking place, during a period 
of time of which the present moment is a part. 

The present perfect tense may refer to a past action whose conse- 
quences still continue, or whose effects are still felt; or it may be used in 
reference to an author whose writings still exist; as, "Christianity has 
civilized many nations." — Washington has left an example which all 
should delight to follow." — "Shakespeare has written better plays than 
any other English dramatist." 

The present perfect tense, like the present, sometimes refers to future 
time; as, "Let me know when he has arrived." 

The propriety of the use of either the present, or the present perfect 
tense, to express future time is, in most instances, quite doubtful, although 
such use is common among good writers. It is better, perhaps, always 
to employ the forms of the future and of the future perfect tense to 
express the relations of future time. 

The Past Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which is 
used to express past time which is previous to some other past 
time; as, "He had gone before the messenger arrived." 

The past perfect tense denotes what had been, what had 
taken place, or what had been taking place before some past 
event mentioned. 

The Future Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which is 
used to express future time which is previous to some other 
future time; as, "I shall have finished the task before the close 
of next week." 

The future perfect tense denotes wliat shall or will have 
been, what shall or will have taken place, or what shall or will 
have been taking place, before some future event mentioned. 

The Tenses of the Different Modes. 

The indicative mode has all the six tenses. 

The potential mode has four tenses; the present, the fast, the present 
perfect, and the past perfect. 
The subjunctive mode has two tenses; the present and the past. 



5(3 NUMBER AXD PERSON— UNIPERSONAL VERBS. 

The infinitive mode has two tenses; the present and the present perfect. 

The imperative mode has but one tense; the present. 

The tenses in the indicative mode express time according to their 
definitions and qualifications as already given. 

The time denoted by verbs in the subjunctive, the potential, the in- 
finitive, and the imperative mode, is not definite; nor is it always such 
as the names of the tenses imply: — it is present, past, or future, according 
to their tise or their connection with other verbs or forms of verbs. 

Number and Person. 

Verbs have changes <>f form t<> correspond with the Dumber 
and the person of their subjects. 

Verbs, therefore, arc said to have two numbers, — the 
Singular and the Plural; and three persons, — the First, the 
Second, and the Third : thus; — 

Singular. Plural 

I learn, We learn, 

thou leamest, you learn, 

be learns; they learn. 

A verli in tin- infinitive mode lias no number or person, because it 
has n<» Bubject. 

i \ll'l l.-< >\ \l. \ BRB8. 

Unipersonal Verbs are those which have l>nt one person. 

Would, meaning wish, is always in die first person; as, "Would he 
were here," means, "/ wish \u- were here." 

Methinke (/ think) and wuthoughi (I thought) air used, in the first 
P< rson, ;i- unipersonal verbs. 

Verbs in the imperative mode an- always in die second person, bul in 
parsing they need nol \><- called unipersonal. 

Verbs which have the proqpun it (used indefinitely) for their subject, 
arc unipersonal verbs in tin- third person; as, "b behooves." — "It 

tlllllh! 

\f. .. 'i set /., in, i and meseetned (it seemed t<> me) are uniper- 
sonal verbs in the thiril person. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Pen. 


I am. 


We .ire, 


2d l', rs. 


thou art, 


you are, 


:W Pers. 


he is; 


they are 



PARTICIPLES. 57 

Participles. 

A Participle is a form of the verb which has the nature, 
partly of the verb, and partly of the adjective; as, "Wealth 
acquired dishonestly affords no happiness." 

The participle has the nature of the verb, because it expresses (though 
it does not assert) action, being, or state, and also implies time. It has 
the nature of the adjective, because, like an adjective, it describes or 
limits a noun or a pronoun. 

There are three participles; the Imperfect, the Perfect, 
and the Preperfect. 

The participles are so named from the condition (as regards comple- 
tion) of the action, the being, or the state, implied by the participle at the 
time denoted by the principal verb with which it is connected. 

The Imperfect Participle is one which represents an action, 
a being, or a state, as continuing, or as unfinished; as, "The 
waves were heard breaking on the beach." 

The imperfect participle in the active voice ends with ing; as, learn- 
ing, seeing, reading. In this voice it is a single word. 

The imperfect participle in the passive voice has being for its sign ; as, 
being seen, being read. In this voice it is always complex in form. 

The Perfect Participle is one which represents an action, 
a being, or a state, as complete or finished; as, "He came 
accompanied by his friends." — "The army retired, defeated 
on all sides." 

The perfect participle in each voice is a single word. 

The perfect participle is seldom used in the active voice except to 
form the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect tense; 
as, "I have taught." — "I had taught." — "I shall have taught." 

In the passive voice it is used in forming all the tenses of the various 
modes; — it may also be used alone; as, "I am loved;" to be loved; 
"Washington died, loved by all." 



58 PARTICIPLES. 

The Preperfect Participle is one which represents an action, 
a being, or a state, as complete or finished before some other 
action, being, or state; as, "Having reached the summit, they 
sat down to rest." 

The preperfect participle is always complex in form, and in the active 
voice is made by placing having, and in the passive voice, by placing 
having been, before the perfect participle; as, having loved; having 
been taught. 

Participle* and Infinitives are sometimes called Verbals. 

A verbal may l>e defined as a word thai is derived from a verb, and is 
used as a noun, an a<lj< dive, or an mln rb; as, " To err is human. " — " To 
think is to Ibnow." "Reading without purpose is a waste of time." — 
" He did not like h, ing teased." " He had the courage /« tell the truth.'" 

"Wealth acquired dishonestly i- a curse." -"Our friends have come 
to stay." "I \\a> urged to speak." 

Remarks. 

The imperfect and the preperfed participle are easily distinguished 
bj their forms. 

Thr perfect participle of regular, and of mosl irregular verbs, has the 
Bame form u the past tense; l>nt the action, the being, or the state ex- 
pressed l>y this participle is not asserted of a subject, as thai of a finite 
verb is. 

The time implied by the participle is present, past, or future, accord- 
ing to the tense of the principle verb \\ ith which it is u?ed; as, " He lives, 
respected {present) by all that know him." "He lived, esteemed {past) 
by his fricinh." "He will live, honored [future) by his fellow-men." 

When a participle is used merely t" describe a noun or a pronoun, 

it is called a Participial Adjutic: as, "Cultivated fields .surrounded 

the mansion." "A running stream is a pleasanl si L '|it." 

When a participle receives a prefix not found in the verb from which 
it is formed, it becomes an ;idi<ciive simply, and is to be parsed as such; 
as, beloved, unloved, unhonored. 

Winn a participle ending with /'/);/ is used simply as the name of an 
action, a !>ein._\ or a State, it is called a Participial \,,iin: as, " Hi. r<ad- 

ing i< very indistinct. " 



CLASSES OF VERBS ACCORDING TO FORM. 59 

Exercise. — Name the participles in the following sentences, and tell to 
which class each belongs; also, the participles used as adjectives, and those 
used as nouns: — 

Still achieving, still pursuing, learn to labor and to wait. The laborer 
exhausted by toil, sank into a deep sleep. The icicles hanging from the 
branches of the trees glistened in the sunlight. The French, having en- 
tered Moscow, considered their sufferings at an end. The complaining 
brooks make the meadows green. The street, filled with its ever-shifting 
train, has been compared to life. " 'Tis some visitor, " I muttered, " tapping 
at my chamber door." The sentence of death pronounced upon the 
prisoner was received without emotion. The confused throng swayed to 
and fro. The army, returning with victorious eagles, entered the city 
in triumph. 

Being driven by the gale the vessel was dashed against the rocky shore. 
The Persians, having been defeated, returned to their own country. His 
mind had been well disciplined by reading and observation. The stream 
flows on its winding course through a richly cultivated valley. I see thee 
weeping, trembling, captive led. The defences of the city being battered 
down, the enemy entered. Riches, justly obtained and rationally used, 
are a great blessing. The services having been concluded, preparations 
were made to deposit the coffin in the earth. How fast the flitting figures 
pass! Cheating is a sure attendant upon gambling. 

Classes of Verbs According to Form. 

STRONG AND WEAK VERBS. 

Verbs may be divided into two classes, according to the 
way in which they form their past tense and perfect parti- 
ciple. These two classes are Strong and Weak verbs. 

The Strong Verbs are those which form their tense by the 
change of a letter — the vowel for the past tense and the final 
letter for the past participle; as, — 

Present. Past. Perfect Part. 

Grow, grew, grown/ 

Blow, blew, blown. 

Bid, bade, bidden. 

Freeze, froze, frozen. 

Some verbs were said to be too weak to form the past 
tense and perfect participle within themselves, but had to 



Past. 


P cried Pari 


hunted, 


hunted. 


rowed, 


rowed. 


Walk<</, 


walked. 


hoped, 


hoped. 


loved, 


loved. 


slept, 


slop/. 



60 THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 

have a syllable, or the contraction of a syllable, added to 
form these parts; as, — 

Present. 

Hunt, 
Row, 
Walk, 
Hope, 
Love, 
Sleep, 

These weak verbs are much more numerous than the strong 
verbs, so that the forming of the past and perfect participles 
by adding ed was thought to be the common <>r regular way. 

For this reason most grammarians classify verbs as Reg- 
ular and Irregular Verbs; thus, — 

Verba are divided, according t<> their formation, into two 

classes; Regular and Irregular. 

A Regular Verb is one whose past tense and perfect parti- 
ciple are formed by suffixing ed t<» h> present tense; as, pies., 

Inn ; |i;t-t, Inrnl; pert*, part., loved. 

An Irregular Verb i^ one whose past tense or perfect parti- 
ciple, or both, are not formed by suffixing ed to its present 
tense; as, pres., take; past, took; perf. part., taken. 

Tin: i'i;i\< [PAL PAW 9 01 1 ERBS. 

The present tense, the past tense, and the perfect participlt arc .ailed 
the Prinaipal Parts of ■ \<rl». 

They axe called the Principal Parts because, besides being themselves 
■ parts of the verb, they ai<! in th<- formation of all tin- other tenses 
or parts of the verb. 

The present form of a verb is used in the present and in the future 
tense of the indicative; in t * i « - present and in 1 1 »* - past <>f the potential; 
in the present of the subjunctive, in the present of the imperative, ami 
in the present of the infinitive. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



61 



The past form of a verb is used in the past tense in the indicative, and 
in the past of the subjunctive. 

The present form and the past are never used in the passive voice. 

The perfect participle is used after "have" and "had" in the active 
voice, and is used in forming all the tenses of the different modes in the 
passive voice. 



A TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF PRIMITIVE 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 

The principal parts of primitive verbs chiefly are given because, 
generally the past tense and the perfect participle of derivative and 
compound verbs are formed as those of their primitives are. 

Verbs are partially inflected when their principal parts are named. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, awaked, 


awaked. 


Bear (to bring forth) 


i, bore, bare, 


born. 


Bear (to carry), 


bore, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beat, beaten. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bended, bent, 


bended, bent. 


Bereave, 


bereaved, bereft, 


bereaved, bereft. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bestride, 


bestrid, bestrode, 


bestrid, bestridden. 


Betide, 


betid, betided, 


betid. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bid, bidden. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, builded, 


built, builded. 


Burn, 


burned, burnt, 


burned, burnt. 



62 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Presenl. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, catched, 


caught, catched. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chid, chidden. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen, chose. 


Cleave (to split), 


cleft, clove, 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost 


Creep, 


crept. 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, crowed. 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare {to w lUure), 


dared, durst, 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


1%. 


dug, digged, 


dug, digged. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew. 


drawn. 


I beam, 


dreamed, dreampt, 


dreamed, dreampt. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


1 >rive. 


drove, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelled, dwelt, 


dwelled, dwelt 


Bat, 


eat, ate, 


eat, eaten. 


Pall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed. 


red. 


Peel, 


felt. 


felt 


Fight, 


fought 


foUght. 


Find, 


found. 


found. 


Flee, 


He,!. 


Bed. 


Fling, 


Bung, 


Bung. 


riy. 


Hew. 


Sown. 


ike, 


for k. 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


fn./r, 


frozen. 


Get, 


e; 1 >t , 


got, gotten. 


Gild, 


gilded, gilt, 


gilded, gflt 


Gird, 


girded, girt, 


girded, girt. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



03 



Present. 

Go, 

Grave, 

Grind, 

Grow, 

Hang, 

Have, 


Past. 

went, 

graved, 

ground, 

grew, 

hanged, hung, 

had, 


Perfect Part. 
gone. 

graven, graved, 
ground, 
grown. 

hanged, hung, 
had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Heave, 


heaved, hove. 


heaved. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewed, hew T n. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hid, hidden. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Keep, 
Kneel, 


kept, 
kneeled, knelt, 


kept, 
kneeled, knelt. 


Knit, 


knit, knitted, 


knit, knitted. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Lade 


laded, 


laded, laden. 


Lay, 
Lead, 


laid, 
led, 


laid, 
led. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie {to recline), 

Light, 

Lose, 


lay, 

lighted, lit, 
lost, 


lain. 

lighted, lit. 
lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowed, mown. 


Pay, 

Pen {to coup), 

Put, 

Quit, 

Rap {to seize), 

Read, 


paid, 

penned, pent, 

put, 

quit, quitted, 

rapped, rapt, 

read, 


paid. 

penned, pent. 

put. 

quit, quitted. 

rapped, rapt. 

read. 


Rid, 


rid, ridded, 


rid, ridded. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 



64 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 

Ring, 

Rise, 

Rive, 

Run, 

Say, 

Saw, 

Coo 
OCtf, 

Seek, 

Seethe, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Set, 

Shake, 

Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 
Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 
Shoot, 
Show, 
Shred, 

Shrink, 

Shut. 

Sing, 

Sink, 
Sit. 

Slay, 
Sleep, 
Slide, 
Sling, 

Slink. 

Slit, 

Smell, 

Smite, 

Sow, 
Speak, 

Speed, 



Past. 


Perfect Part. 


rang, rung, 


rung. 


rose, 


risen. 


rived, 


rived, riven. 


ran, run, 


run. 


said, 


said. 


sawed, 


sawed, sawn. 


saw, 


seen. 


sought, 


sought. 


seethed, 


seethed, sodden. 


sold, 


sold. 


sent, 


sent. 


set, 


set. 


shook, 


shaken. 


shaped, 


shaped, shapen. 


shaved, 


shaved, shaven. 


sheared, 


sheared, shorn. 


shed. 


shed. 


shone, shined, 


shone, shined. 


shod, 


shod. 


>h<>t. 


-hot. 


showed, 


shown, showed. 


shred, 


shred. 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


shut. 


shut. 


BUng, -aiiL r . 


sung. 


sunk, sank. 


-unk. 


-at. 


-at. 


stew, 


-lain. 


Blept, 


slept. 


slid, 


slid, slidden. 


slung, 


Slling. 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, -lilted. 


slit, -lilted. 


studied, smelt, 


smelted, smelt. 


smote, 


smitten, smit. 


-owed. 


-owed. -o\\ II. 


BDoke, -pake. 


spoken. 


sped, speeded, 


-ped, speeded. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



65 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Spell, 


spelled, spelt, 


spelled, spelt. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilled, spilt, 


spilled, spilt. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit. 


Split, 


split, splitted, 


split, splitted. 


Spoil, 


spoiled, spoilt, 


spoiled, spoilt. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Stave, 


staved, stove, 


staved, stove. 


Stay, 


stayed, staid, 


stayed, staid. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stink, 


stank, stunk, 


stunk. 


Strew, 


strewed, 


strewed, strewn. 


Stride, 


strid, strode, 


strid, stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, stricken. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, sweated, 


sweat, sweated. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelled, swollen 


Swim, 


swam, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


thrived, 


thrived, thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trod, trodden. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxed, waxen. 


Wear, 


wore, 

5 


worn. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



Present. 


Pant. 


Perfect Part. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven, wove. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Wet, 


wet, wetted, 


wet, wetted. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, 


worked, wrought, 


worked, wrought 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Writ.-, 


wrote, 


written. 



Defective Verbs. 
A Defective Verb is one which has no participles, and is not 
used in all the modes and tenses. 
Defective verbs arc irregular. 



\ LIST Ol DEI 1 .< TIVK VERBS. 



Present. PatL 

Beware, 

Can, could. 

Hark, 



May, might 

Mum. 



Present. 


Past. 


Quoth, 


quoth. 


Shall, 


should 


Will. 


would. 


Wjs, 


wist. 


Wit. 


wot. 



Ought, ought 

Remarks. 
■■■ ia used mostly in the imperative mode, bul it may !><• used in 
other modes. 
Ilnrh ia now nsed only in the imperative. 

Ought, which ia aearly equivalent t<> should (the past tense of shall), 

i-> employed in connection with the infinitive mode <>f other verbs; as, 

"I ought to ;_'"." "He ought to Irani." "She ought to have gone." 

Ought is in the preet nt tense w hen followed by the present tense of the 

infinitive, and in the pad tense when followed by the present perfect tense 

of tlir infinitive. 
(Juotli ia now seldom used, except in humor or satire 
Wis [know) and wid {knew) are obsolete. 

Wit i-~ employed only in the infinitive (to wit)', when thus Used it is 

equivalent to namely or that is t<> $ay, and ia used in legal language to 
call attention to particulars; its past tense wot i- not now used 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 67 

Can, may, shall, and will, and their past tenses, and must, are used 
only in forming tenses of other verbs. 

The unipersonal verbs would (meaning wish), meseems, and methinks, 
are also defective. 

Auxiliary Verbs. 

An Auxiliary Verb is one which helps to form the modes 
and the tenses of other verbs. 

The only tenses which may not be formed by means of auxiliaries are 
the present and the past of the indicative and the subjunctive, and the 
present of the imperative and the infinitive, in the active voice; as, "I 
loved." — "Love thou;" — to love; and even these, except the present 
infinitive, have complex forms; as, "If I did love." 

The auxiliary verbs are be, do, have, will, can, may, shall, 
must, and need. 

Remarks. 

Be, do, have, need, and will, are also complete or principal verbs; they 
are auxiliary, when used with a participle or with any other part of a 
principal verb. 

Can, may, must, and shall, are auxiliary verbs only. 

Be is used as an auxiliary throughout all its parts in aiding to form the 
passive voice and the progressive form of other verbs. 

Do is used as an auxiliary only in its present and in its past tense. 

Have is used as an auxiliary in its present and its past tense, and in 
its imperfect participle. 

Need is used as an auxiliary only in its present tense, chiefly in sen- 
tences expressing requirement or obligation; as, "The messenger need 
not return. " It makes one of the variations of the potential mode. 

Can, may, shall, and will, have each two tenses only, the present and 
the past; and must and need but one, the present. 

FORMS OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Present. Am, Do, Have, Shall, Will, May, Can, Must, Need. 

Past. was, did. had, should, would, might, could. — — 

Part. being, — having, — — — — — — 

been. — had. 



68 CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES. 

CONJUGATION. 

The Inflection of a verb is called Conjugation. 
The Conjugation of a verb is the regular arrangement of 
its several voices, modes, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

Conjugation of the Auxiliaries. 
CAN. 

Present: a sign of the Potential Present. 

Singular. PlvraL 

1 . I can, l . We can, 

2. Thou canst, 2. You can, 

3. He can; 3. They can. 

Past: -a sign of the Potential Past. 

1. I could, l. We could, 

2. Thou couldst, 2. You could, 

3. lie could; 3. They could. 

MAY. 

Prist at: a sign nj the Potential Present. 

1 . I may, I . We may, 

2. 'Tin. n mayst, 2. Yon may, 
.'•I. lie may; '■>. They may. 

Past: a sign of the Potential Past. 

1. I might, 1. We might, 

l\ Thou mightst, 2. i "ii might, 

3. He might; 3. They might 

si i ILL. 
Present: -a sign <>f Future Tenses. 

1. I shall, l. We shall, 

2. Thou shalt, 2. Von shall, 

3. He shall; 3. TheyshalL 



CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES. 69 

Past: — a sign of the Potential Past 

Singular. Plural. 

1 . I should, 1 . We should, 

2. Thou shouldst, 2. You should, 

3. He should; 3. They should. 

MUST. 
Present: — a sign of the Potential Present. 

1 . I must, 1 . We must, 

2. Thou must, 2. You must, 

3. He must; 3. They must. 

WILL. 

Present: — a sign of Future Tenses. 

1. I will, 1. We will, 

2. Thou wilt, 2. You will, 

3. He will; 3. They will. 

Past: — a sign of the Potential Past. 

1 . I would, 1 . We would, 

2. Thou wouldst, 2. You would, 

3. He would; 3. They would. 

When used as a principal verb: — Principal Parts. — Present, Will; 
Past, Willed; Perfect Participle, Willed. Participles. — Imperfect, 
Willing; Perfect, Willed; Preperfect, Having willed. 

NEED. 

Present: — a sign of the Potential Present. 

1 . I need, 1 . We need, 

2. Thou needst, 2. You need, . 

3. He needs; 3. They need. 

When used as a principal verb: — Principal Parts. — Present, Need; 
Past, Needed; Perfect Participle, Needed. Participles. — Imperfect, 
Needing; Perfect, Needed; Preperfect, Having needed. 



70 CONJUGATION OF INTRANSITIVE VERB "TO BE." 
DO. 

Present: — a sign of the Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 . I do, 1 . We do, 

2. Thou dost, 2. You do, 

3. He does; 3. They do. 

Past: — a sign of the Past Tense. 

1 . I did, 1 . We did, 

2. Thou didst, 2. You did, 

3. He did; 3. They did. 

When used as a principal verb: Principal Parts. Present, Do; 
Pa.it, Dili; Perfect Participle, Dune. Participles. — Imperfect, Doing; 
Perfect, Done; Preperfect, Having done. 



Prist nt: a sign of the Present Perfect Tense. 

1 . I have, 1 . We have, 

2. Thou hast, 2. You have, 
'A. 11«- has; 3. They have. 

Past: (i sign of the Past Perfect Tense. 

l . 1 had, l . We had, 

_'. Thou hadst, 2. You had, 

:;. He had; 3. They had. 

When used as a principal verb: Prin< ipal Parts. Present. Have; 
Paii, Had; Perfect Participle, Had. Participles. Imperfect, Hewing; 
Perfect, Had; Preperfect, Having had. 

Conjugation of the Intransitive Verb 
"TO />•/.." 

riilM [PAL PARTS. 
P re sent . Am. Post. Was. Perfect Participle.-^Beeu. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 71 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



In the Indicative mode, the present tense and the past have no aux- 
iliaries except do and did in the emphatic form. 

The auxiliary of the future tense is shall or will and its variations. 

Of the present perfect, have; — of the past perfect, had; — of the 
future perfect, shall have or will have. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. 



Singular. Plural. 

1 . I am, 1 . We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is; 3. They are; 



Singular. Plural. 

1 . I was, 1 . We were, 

2. Thou wast, 2. You were, 

3. He was; 3. They were. 



Future Tense: — implying simply future time. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 

2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 

3. He will be; 3. They will be. 

Future Tense: — implying promise, command, or threat. 

1 . I will be, 1 . We will be, 

2. Thoushaltbe, 2. You shall be, 

3. He shall be; 3. They shall be. 

When questions are asked, these forms reverse their meanings; that 
is, the second expresses future time, and the first has reference to a 
determination or command. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1 . I have been, 1 . We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been; 3. They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1 . I had been, 1 . We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been; 3. They had been. 



72 POTENTIAL MODE. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 . I shall or will have been, 1 . We shall or will have been. 

2. Thou wilt or shalt have been, 2. You will or shall have been, 

3. He will or shall have been; 3. They will or shall have been. 

The auxiliaries shall and will have nearly the same meaning in the 
future perfect as in the future tense. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

In this mode the auxiliaries of the present tense are may, can, must, 

and need; 

— Of the past tense, might, cnulil, would, and should: 

— Of the present perfect tense, may have, ran have, must hare, and 

need heme; 

— Of the past perfect tense, might hare, could hare, would hare, and 

should home, i >f these only one in each tense will here be given. 

Pnseut Tense. 
8vtffular. PhtraL 

1 . I may l>e, 1 . We may l>e, 

2. Thou mays! be, 2. Yon may 1m-, 

:{. He ma\ be; ."i. They may be. 

I'asf 'Tense. 

1 . I might !•<■. l . We might be, 

2. Thou mights! be. 2. Y<>u might be, 

3. II.- might be; '•'>. They might be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1 . I may have 1 m-.-u . 1 . We may have been, 

2. Thou maysl have been, 2. Ynu may have been, 

3. He may have been; -i. They may have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1 . I might have been, I . We mi^'lit have been, 

2. Thou mights! have been, 2. You might have been, 
:5. He might have been; 3. They might have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE— IMPERATIVE MODE. 73 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verb "to be" in every tense of this mode, 
using all the auxiliaries. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Verbs in the indicative and the potential mode, as well as those in the 
subjunctive, are preceded by the conjunctions if, though, etc.; therefore 
some grammarians teach that there are three forms of the subjunctive 
mode, viz.: the Subjunctive Proper, the Subjunctive Indicative, and 
the Subjunctive Potential. But it requires a distinct form of the verb 
to constitute a distinct mode, and this distinct form is found in the sub- 
junctive mode, in the present and the past tense only; strictly, therefore, 
the Subjunctive Proper is the only subjunctive mode. 

When the indicative and the potential mode are preceded by the con- 
junctions named, they may be parsed as the indicative and the poten- 
tial mode, used subjunctively. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be; 3. If they be. 



Singular. Plural. 

1 . If I were, 1 . If we were, 

2. If thou were, 2 . If you were, 

3. If he were; 3. If they were. 



The present tense of the subjunctive refers to future time; as, "If it 
be necessary, I will go to-morrow"; that is, "If it shall be necessary, etc." 

The past tense refers to the present time; as, "If it were done, all 
anxiety would be at an end"; that is, "If it were done now, etc." 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

2 f Be, or be thou, f Be, or be you, 

" 1 Do be, or do thou be; " 1 Do be, or do you be. 

The form of any verb having the auxiliaries do or did placed before it 
is called the Emphatic Form, because it is used to denote emphasis. 

In the active voice of any verb, the emphatic form can be used only in 
the present tense and the past of the indicative, in both tenses of the 
subjunctive, and in the imperative. 

In the passive voice, the emphatic form is used only in the imperative. 



7i INFINITIVE MODE— PARTICIPLES, ETC. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. — To be. Present Perfect Tense. — To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect. — Being. Perfect. — Been. Preperfect. — Having been. 

Remarks on the Verb "To Be." 

Be was formerly used in the indicative present for am, thus: — I be, 
thou beest, he be; We be, yt be, they be. This form is now considered 
contrary n> good usage. 

Wirt is sometimes used for were, in the second person singular of the 
past subjunctive, and improperly for wast in the past indicative. 

Wen sometimes means would be; it should !>»• parsed according to its 

form, as in the subjunctive i lc although potential iii meaning; as, 

"It were vain to contend against such odds." 

The forms had be, and had In < n, in denoting comparison or preference, 
an- often used for would be, and would have been; as, w ] had rather be 
a dog, than such ■ K an." " It had /«< n better for him it' he had not 

done it." 

Such ex p res si ons should !»• avoided, and the past, or the past perfect 
tense of the potential, should be used. 

The conjunction^ if, though, etc., are sometimes omitted, and the 

nominative is placed after the verb, or between the verb and the aux- 
iliary; a>. W> re I. for. if I wt ti : had he gone, for. if he had gone; should 

In stiii/, for. if he should stnif. 

and the person 
of each pari of the verb " to be" in the following expressions, and conjugate 
the mode and the tenet of eaefa part: — 

Thou art. He baa been. We shal] be I may !»■• If I wire. 
Be. To be They had been Thou wilt have been. You oould 
l.. They might have been. If he l»- You were ]|.- may have 
been. He you. lie need !»-. she should be. It was. To have 

| She WOUld 

!-i II — Give, in regular order, all the first persona singular of 
tin- verb "t.. be" in the indicative mode; — r* 1 1 the first persona plural; — all 

•,1 |.ers..ii~ lingular all the second pet-. .n- plural. — all the third 

persona singular; — ami all the third persona plural. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB " TO LOVE," ETC. 75 

Give also all the first persons plural in the potential mode; — all the third 
persons plural ; — all the second persons singular, and second persons plural, 
in the subjunctive mode. 

The preceding exercise is one of Synopsis. 

A Synopsis is a collection of parts so arranged as to give a general 
view of the whole. 

Conjugation of the Verb "To Love." 
Active Voice. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Present. — Love. Past. — Loved. Per]. Participle. — Loved. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plura... 

1. Hove, I. We love, 

2. Thou lovest, 2. You love, 

3. He loves; 3. They love. 

Present Tense: — Emphatic Form. 
1. I do love, 1. We do love, 



2. 
3. 


Thou dost love, 
He does love; 




2. 
3. 


You do love, 
They do love. 




Past 


Tense. 






1. 

2. 
3. 


I loved, 
Thou lovedst, 
He loved; 




1. 
2. 
3. 


We loved, 
You loved, 
They loved. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Past Tense:— 

I did love, 
Thou didst love, 
He did love; 


-Emphatic 

1. 
2. 
3. 


Form. 

We did love, 
You did love, 
They did love. 



76 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." 

Future Tense: — implying simply future time. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 

3. He will love; 3. They will love. 

Future Tense: — implying promise, command, or threat. 

1 . I will love, 1 . Wo will love, 

2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall love, 

3. He shall love; 3. They shall love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. \'<>u have loved, 

3. He ha.s loved; 3. They have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadsl loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved; .!. They had loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall Of will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 

2. Thoil wilt Or shah have loved, 2. YOU will Of shall have loved, 

3. He will <,r shall have loved; '■'>. They will <>r shall have loved. 



POT1 Nil \i MODE. 

F resent Tcnst. 

1 . I may love, 1 . We may love, 

2. Thou mays! love, 2. You may love, 
'A. He may love; 3. Theymaj love. 

Fust Tense. 

1. I mighl love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mights! love, "J. You might love, 

3. He might love; :{. They mighl love. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 



Singular. 

1. I may have loved, 

2. Thou niayst have loved, 

3. He may have loved; 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We may have loved, 

2. You may have loved, 

3. They may have loved. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

1 . I might have loved, 1 . We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved; 3. They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 







Present Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


If I love, 
If thou love, 
If he love; 


1. If we love, 

2. If you love, 

3. If they love. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Present 
If I do love, 
If thou do love, 
If he do love; 


Tense: — Emphatic Form. 

1. If we do love, 

2. If you do love, 

3. If they do love. 

Past Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


If I loved, 
If thou loved, 
If he loved; 


1 . If we loved, 

2. If you loved, 

3. If they loved. 



Past Tense: — Emphatic Form. 

1 . If I did love, 1 . If we did love, 

2. If thou did love, 2. If you did love, 

3. If he did love; 3. If they did love. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 



2. Love, love thou, or 
do thou love; 



2. Love, love you, or 
do you love. 



78 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. — To love. Present Perfect. — To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect. — Loving. Perfect. — Loved. Preperfcct. — Having loved. 

Remarks. 

The third person singular formerly ended in eth. This termination, 
and Itatlt for ltd*, and doth for does, arc used only in solemn style. 

K\> in i-i I — Conjugate tin- verbs to learn, t*> take, to rule, and to teach, 
in tin- active voice, in the same manner as tin- verb " to love" is conjugated. 

K\i hcisk II. — Give orally, or write mil. a sifnopsis of the verb to love, 
in the first person singular, in all the modes of tin' active voice; thus: / 
Aw. , or / <ln love; I /"/■"/. or / did love; I shall low , etc. 

Give orally, or write out, a synopsis of the same verb in the second person 

singular, in all tin- modes <>f the active voice; — in the second person plural; 
— in the third person plural: — of tin- verb '" takt in the third person sin- 
gular, in all the modes of the active voice j- in the firel person plural. 

BxrociBB HI — Mention the prtnetpoi parts, the mode, the tense, the 
number, and the person, of the verbs in the following expressions: — 

Thouwritest. He taught Speak you. He may learn, [f I love. They 
do learn. He will take. 1 had talked. Thou mights! rule. You may 
have listened. [ undetvtood. He has explained. Speak. To have heard. 
If thou ruled. We might have obeyed. They would write. We must 

study. YOU should have listened. It has amused. She will have taken. 

He need not go. They had come. 

Passive Voice. 
Tltf Passive Voice <>f a verb is formed by combining with 
its perfect }>;trti<i|>lr the variations of the auxiliary verb /<> be. 

There are eleven va ria t ii hi > of the veil, "to he," namely; — am, art, 
is, ar, . was, wast, wen (weri), fa , been, and being. 

MDK \tiyi: modi . 

I'ns, nt Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 . I am loved. 1 . We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. Ymii are loved, 
::. lie ia loved; 8. They are loved. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 79 



Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved; 3. They were loved. 

Future Tense: — implying simply future time. 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 

3. He will be loved; 3. They will be loved. 

Future Tense: — implying 'promise, command, or threat. 

1. I will be loved, 1. We will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt be loved, 2. You shall be loved, 

3. He shall be loved; 3. They shall be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1 . I have been loved, 1 . We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved; 3. They have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved; 3. They had been loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have been loved, 1. We shall or will have been 

loved, 

2. Thou wilt or shalt have been 2. You will or shall have been 

loved, loved, 

3. He will or shall have been 3. They will or shall have been 

loved; loved. 



80 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE:' 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved; 3. They might be loved. 

Present Perfect. 

1. I may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved, 

2. Thou msyal have Keen loved, 2. You may have been loved, 
■A. He may have been loved; :*■ They may have been loved. 

Past Perfect. 

1. I mighl have been loved, I. We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mights! have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 
;;. lie might have been loved; :;. They might have been loved. 



Sl'RII MTIVK MODK. 

Present Tense. 
i. If I be loved, I. If we be loved, 

2. It thoU Ik- loved, 2. [f von Ih> loved, 

3. If he l>e loved; 3. If they be loved. 

Past Tense, 

1. If I were love, I. 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou were loved, -'. [f you were loved, 

3. If he were loved; 3. If they were loved. 



PROGRESSIVE FORM. 81 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



Present Tense. 
2. Be loved, be thou loved, or 2. Be loved, be you loved, or 

do thou be loved. do you be loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. — To be loved. Present Perfect. — To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. — Being loved. Perfect. — Loved. Preperfect. — Having been 
loved. 

Exercise I. — Conjugate the verbs to advise, to take, to rule, and to teach, 
in the passive voice, in the same manner as the verb "to love" is conjugated 
in the passive voice. 

Exercise II. — Give a synopsis of the verb "to love" in the first person 
singular, passive; — of the verb "to advise" in the second person singular; 
— of the verb "to take" in the first person plural; — of the verb "to rule" in 
the second person plural; — of the verb "to teach" in the third person plural. 

Exercise III. — Mention the principal parts, the mode, the tense, the 
number, and the person, of each verb in the following expressions : — 

I have been loved. Thou wast advised. You are taught. It is taken. 
He shall be ruled. They had been loved. He may be asked. It was 
broken. If she be taken. Be thou advised. He might be chosen. You 
could have been taught. Be advised. To be done. It should be found. 
If he were taught. They have been seen. Thou mightst be ruled. To 
have been stolen. He will have been heard. They are told. It should 
have been written. Thou art ruled. You can be advised. Thou needst not 
be troubled. 

The Progressive Form. 

The Progressive Form of a verb is that which represents the con- 
tinuance of the action, the being, or the state, asserted by the verb; 
as, "I am writing." — -"Thou art standing." — "He was sleeping." 

The progressive form of a verb is made by combining its imperfect 
participle with the variations of the auxiliary verb to be. 

Some verbs by reason of their use and meaning do not properly 
have a progressive form; "I am esteeming," for instance, means simply, 
"I esteem." 



82 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LEARN," ETC. 

Conjugation of the Verb "To Learn," in the Progressive Form. 
Active Voice. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense.— 1. I am learning, 2. Thou art learning, 3. He is 
learning; etc. 

Past Tense. — 1. I was learning, 2. Thou wast learning, 3. He 
was learning; etc. 

Future Tcn.tr. — 1. I shall or will be learning, 2. Thou wilt or shalt 
be learning, 3. He will or shall be learning; etc. 

Present Perfect.— 1. I have been learning, 2. Thou hast been learn- 
ing, 3. He has been learning; etc. 

Past Perfect.— 1. I had been learning, 2. Thou badst been learn- 
ing, 3. He had been learning; etc. 

Future PerjeeU— 1. I .shall or will have been learning, 2, Thou wilt 
or shalt have been learning, 3. He will or shall 
have been learning; etc. 

POTENT1 \l. MODE. 

Present Tense. - 1. I may be learning, 2. Thou inavst be learning, 
.'!. I le may lie laming; etc 

Past Tense. - 1. I might !><• learning, 2. Thou mightst l>e learn- 
ing, 3. He mighl be learning; etc. 

Present r>r;>rt. i. [ may have been learning, 2. Thou mayest have 
been learning, :>. He may have been learn- 
ing; etc. 

Past Perfect. 1. I might have been learning, 2. Thou mightst 

have been learning, •'!. He might have been 
learning; etc. 

BUBJUN4 i i\ i MODE 

Present Tense. - 1. If I U- learning, 2. If thou be learning, 3. If 

In- 1m' learning; etc. 
Past Tense, - 1. If I wen- learning, 2. If thou were learning, 

3. If he wen- learning; ilc-. 

[MP! KATIYl M 

Present Tins,. 2. !?.■ thou learning, >>r do thou !><■ learning; etc. 



INTERROGATIVE FORM. 83 



INFINITIVE MODE. 



Present Tense. — To be learning. Present Perfect Tense. — To have 
been learning. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. — Being learning (rarely used). Perfect. — Been learn- 

ing (used only after "have" and "had"). Pre- 
perfect. — Having been learning. 

Remarks. 

The progressive form is usually restricted to the active voice, although 
it is sometimes made in the present and the past tense in the passive 
voice by combining with the imperfect passive participle of the verb, 
the variations of the auxiliary verb to be; as, "The work is being 
examined." — "The house was then being constructed." 

The use of the progressive form in the passive voice is of doubtful 
propriety, even though it is sanctioned by many good writers. It is 
preferable to adopt some other mode of expression: thus, instead of, 
"The house was then being constructed," it would be better to say, 
"The house was then in course of construction:" — for, "The work is 
being examined," say, "The work is under examination." 

Some transitive verbs in the progressive form of the active voice 
have, in the third person, a passive signification; as, "These stocks 
are selling at a premium." 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verbs to buy, to read, and to ivrite, in the pro- 
gressive form, in the same manner as the verb " to learn" is conjugated in 
the progressive form. 

The Interrogative Form. 

The Interrogative Form of a verb is that which is used to ask a 

question; as, "Can he learnt" — "Shall he be taught?" 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively by placing the subject imme- 
diately after the verb, between the auxiliary and the verb, or after the 
first auxiliary when two or more auxiliaries are used; as, "Hearest 
thou?" — "May he comet" — "Might he have been calledt" 

The interrogative form is used only in the indicative and in the 
potential mode. 



84 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO SEE," ETC. 

Conjugation of the Verb "To See," in the Interrogative 
Form. 

Active Voice. 

Indicative Mode. — See I, or do I see? Saw I, or did I see? Shall 
or will I see? Have I seen? Had I seen? Shall or will I have seen? 

Potential. — May I see? Might I see? May I have seen? Might 
I have seen? 

Progressive Form.— Am I seeing? Was I seeing? Shall or will 
I be seeing I Have I Keen seeing? Had I been seeing? Shall or will 
I have been seeing? etc. 

Passive Voice. 

Indicative Mode. Am I seen'/ Was 1 seen? Shall or will I he 
seen! Have I been seen? Had I been seen? Shall or will I have 
been seen? 

Potential.— May I be seen 1 Might 1 be seen? May I have been 
seen? Might I have been seen! 

The Negative Form. 

Thr Negative Form <>f a verb is that which is used to express nega- 
tion nr denial; as, "He does not study." 

A verb is conjugated negatively by placing the adverb »<>/ imme- 
diately after it. or after the first auxiliary; as, "They care not." - 
"He con iixt return." "They will nut l» governed." 

The negative not, however, precedes the participles and the infini- 
tive; as, X"t being loved', not to 

The negative Poim is Used in all the modes, and with the parti- 
ciples. 

Conjugation of the Verb "To See," in the Negative Form. 

Active Voice. 
Indicative Mode, I see not, or I do not see. I saw not. or I did 

not aee. 1 shall »r will not Bee. I have Dot seen. I had not seen. 1 

shall or will not have seen. 



NEGATIVE-INTERROGATIVE FORM. 85 

Potential. — I may not see. I might not see. I may not have 
seen. I might not have seen. 

Subjunctive. — If I see not. If I saw not. 

Infinitive. — Not to see. Not to have seen. 

Participles. — Not seeing. Not having seen. 

Progressive Form. — I am not seeing. I was not seeing. I shall 
or will not be seeing. I have not been seeing. I had not been seeing. 
I shall or will not have been seeing, etc. 

Passive Voice. 

Indicative Mode. — I am not seen. I was not seen. I shall or 
will not be seen. I have not been seen. I had not been seen. I shall 
or will not have been seen. 

Potential. — I may not be seen. I might not be seen. I may not 
have been seen. I might not have been seen. 

Subjunctive. — If I be not seen. If I were not seen. 

Infinitive. — Not to be seen. Not to have been seen. 

Participles.— Not being seen. Not having been seen. 

The Negative-Interrogative Form. 

The Negative-Interrogative Form of a verb is that which is used to 
ask a question tvith negation; as, "Shall they not be taught?" 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively by placing the 
subject followed by not, immediately after the verb, or after the first 
auxiliary; as, "Cares he not?" — "Might he not improve?" 

The negative-interrogative form is used only in the indicative mode 
and in the potential. 

Conjugation of the Verb "To See," in the Negative-Interroga- 
tive Form. 

Active Voice. 

Indicative Mode. — See I not, or do I not see? Saw I not, or did 
I not see ? Shall or will I not see ? Have I not seen ? Had I not seen ? 
Shall or will I not have seen? 

Potential. — May I not see? Might I not see? May I not have 
seen? Might I not have seen? 



86 PASSIVE VOICE— EXERCISES. 

Progressive Form. — Am I not seeing? Was I not seeing? Shall 
or will I not be seeing? Have I not been seeing? Hail I not been 
seeing? Shall or will I not have been seeing? etc. 

Passive Voice. 

INDICATIVE Mode. — Am I not seen? Was I not seen? Shall or 
will I not be seen? Have I not been seen? Had I not been seen? 
Shall or will 1 not have been seen? 

Potential. — May I not be seen? Might I not in- seen? May I 
not have been seen? Might I not have been seen? 

Exercise [.—Conjugate tin- verb t» nde in the interrogative form. 

Conjugate tli.' verb t<> teach in the negative form. 

Conjugate the verb t<> take in the negative-interrogative form. 

Gxbbcisb II — Mention the principal /»irts. form, voice, mode, tense, 
number, and person, at each of the following verbs, and conjugate each in 
it- mode and tense: — 

\ rh not in tin- progressive, the emphatic, the interrogative, tin- nega- 
tive, >>r ''"' negative-interrogative form, i- Bait] to be in the common }<>r»i.) 

He- w; L s taught. I may Ih- ruling- Thou wast singing. We may not !><• 
heard. Might 1 not know? He does Irani. She does study. It was said. 
I have been dreaming. If tiny do oome. Do attend. Awake. l>o not 
disobey. Bhe Bhould have listened. Has he been punished? Will you not 

believe? We might nol have been seen. When will it bed •? Would he 

try, he might succeed. The I k baa been published. Truth is mighty and 

will prevail. Having written a letter, he mailed it I strove to perform the 

task. Could it have been accomplished? Boys were reciting lessons, iu- 
died, esteemed by all thai knew him. 

I.\ -i III Parse the verba in the following sentences: — 

I. — "Success will attend his efforts, if he continue attentive." 
Mod] i.s. — Will attend. — Ni/<-.-. v. will attend efforts. — "Will attend" is n 
v . rb, " \ Verb i- a word. etc.". — t ran-it ive. because it ha- an object (efforts) ; 
— regit!:.- nd perfect participle are formed by Buf- 

fering ad to the presei ■ attend, past «ii< mini. perf. part, attended) ; 

— in the active voice, because it -hows that tin' subject does the action 
I by the verb;— indicative mode, because it expresses a positive 
m; — future ten-.-, because it denotes future time; — in the singular 
number, third person, because i' with which it agrees. 

Continue. — (If) /" eonturn — "Continue" i< a verb, " \ V*< rb Is a word, 
etc."; — intransitive, etc.: — regular, ■limn, past continued, perf. 

part continued); it has no voice, etc subjunctive mode, etc.;— present 
tense, etc.; — in the singular number, third person, because it- subject he 

is, with which it ftgn 



EXERCISES. 87 

2. — "Write your letters, boys, that they may be taken to the post-office. 

Write. — Write (you) letters. — "Write" is a verb, etc.; — transitive, etc.; — 
irregular, etc. (write, wrote, written); — active voice, etc.; — imperative mode, 
etc. ; — present tense, etc.; — in the plural number, second person, because its 
subject (you, understood) is, with which it agrees. 

May be taken. — They may be taken. — "May be taken" is a verb, etc.; — 
transitive, etc.; — irregular, etc. (take, took, taken); — passive voice, .etc.;- — 
potential mode, etc.; — present tense, etc.; — in the plural number, third 
person, because its subject they is, with which it agrees. 

3. — "If he is obliged to go, I can not prevent him." 

Is obliged. — (If) he is obliged. — "Is obliged" is a verb, etc.; — transitive, 
etc.; — regular, etc. (oblige, obliged, obliged) ; — passive voice, etc.; — indicative 
mode (used subjunctively , because it expresses uncertainty or contingency) ; 
— present tense, etc.; — in the singular number, third person, because its 
subject he is, with which it agrees. 

To go. — 7s obliged to go. — "To go" is a verb, etc.; — intransitive, etc.; — 
irregular, etc. (go, went, gone); it has no voice, etc.; — infinitive mode, etc.; 
— present tense, etc.; — it is not limited by number or person, because it has 
no subject; — it depends upon the finite verb is obliged, which it completes 
in meaning. 

4. — "Did all men show charity, how much misery would be prevented." 

Did show. — Men did show charity. — "Did show" is a verb, etc.; — transi- 
tive, etc.; — irregular, etc. (show, showed, shown); — active voice, etc.; — 
subjunctive mode, etc.; — past tense, etc.; — emphatic form, etc.; — in the 
plural number, third person, because its subject men is, with which it 
agrees. 

Participles. — Parse the participles, etc., in the following sentences: — 
1. — "The prisoner, convicted of murder, was sentenced to be hanged." 
Models. — Convicted. — Prisoner convicted. — "Convicted" is the perfect 

participle of the passive voice of the transitive regular verb "to convict" 

(imperf. being convicted, perf. convicted, preperf. having been convicted); — it 

describes the noun prisoner. 

2. — "The falling of the burning timbers caused the death of a fireman." 
Falling. — Falling caused. — "Falling" is the imperfect participle of the 

verb "to fall" (imperf. falling, perf. fallen, preperf. having fallen) ; — it is used 

as a noun in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender; — 

in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb caused. 

Burning. — Burning timbers. — "Burning" is the imperfect participle of 

the verb "to burn" (imperf. burning, perf. burned, preperf. having burned); 

— it is used as an adjective; — it can not be compared, and it describes the 

noun timbers. 

Parse the verbs, the participles, the participial adjectives, and the participial 

nouns in the following sentences: — 



88 ADVERBS. 

Bees make honey. Revenge dwells in little minds. The rich soil yielded 
fruit and flowers in abundance. Virtue will procure esteem. The bird has 
built her nest in the old tree. The sultry heat of summer had passed away. 
An angry man opens his mouth and shuts his eyes. The hunter returned 
laden with the spoils of the chase. Rome was founded in 753 before Christ. 
The cottages of the peasants were consigned to the flames. He who is 
ignorant of happiness may possess wealth, but he cannot truly enjoy it. 

Never entertain unreasonable expectations, for you will be disappointed. 
If thou pretended to know the truth, then thy ignorance were the greater 
crime. Unless we rule ourselves, we will be ruled bv others. 



ADVERBS. 



An Adverb is a won! used to qualify the meaning of a 
verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, "They were not 
diligent, ami advanced very slowly in their studies." 

An adverb may quality a preposition; as, "The vessel was struck 
immediately ul><>ri tin- water-line." 

An adverb maj ;» 1 — • » quality aeveral words taken together; as, "He 
held "ut nearly t<> tin <u<l. and then yielded." "The arrow was aimed 
directly ni tin heart ><] tin captive." 

Remarks. 

An adv.-rb U usually : 1 1 1 abridged expression denoting by one word 
an equivalent for two or more words; $lowly, for instance, is equivalent 

to in (i d0W mini in r. 

Such expressions ;i> ut length, at once, "/ course, in vain, in short, 
etc., each of which usually consists <»f a preposition ami a noun or 
an adjective following, have been termed adverbial phrases, and parsed 
simply as adverbs; but whenever the words in Buch expressions can 
l„- |> irsed separately, it is Better to parse them s... 

The expressions by and by, upside down, now and thru, etc., an 
Complex Adverbs when tin- words composing them cannot be parsed 

ii.lv. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 89 

Adverbs formed by uniting two or more words, with or without 
the hyphen, are Compound Adverbs; as, elsewhere, somehow, topsy- 
turvy, helter-skelter, etc. 

GLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs may be divided into five general classes; Adverbs of Man- 
ner, of Time, of Place, of Degree, and of Interrogation. 

I. Adverbs of Manner generally answer to the question, Howf 
Most of them are formed from adjectives or participles by suffixing 
ly; and a few by suffixing how or wise. 

Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows: — 

1. — Of quality; as, fain, ill, lief, so, thus, well, badly, easily, fool- 
ishly, gladly, sweetly, anyhow, somehow, likewise, otherwise, etc. 

2. — Of affirmation; as, amen, ay, certainly, doubtless, forsooth, in- 
deed, surely, truly, verily, yea, yes, etc. 

3. — Of negation; as, nay, no, not, nowise, etc. 

4. — Of uncertainty; as, haply, may-be, mayhap, perhaps, perchance, 
peradventure, possibly, probably, etc. 

II. Adverbs of Time generally answer to the question, When? 
How long? How often? or How soon? 

The principal adverbs of time are already, always, aye, daily, ever, 
forthwith, hourly, immediately, lately, now, never, often, seldom, since, 
then, till, until, weekly, yesterday, yet, etc.; also, once, twice, and thrice. 

III. Adverbs of Place generally answer to the question, Where? 
Whereabouts? Whence? or Whither? 

The principal adverbs of place are anywhere, downward, elsewhere, 
hence, here, hither, nowhere, off, out, somewhere, thence, there, upward, 
where, wherever, yonder, etc. ; also, first, secondly, thirdly, etc., and such 
words as singly, doubly, triply, etc. 

IV. Adverbs of Degree generally answer to the question, How 
much? or How little? An adverb of degree usually qualifies an adjec- 
tive or another adverb. 

The principal adverbs of degree are almost, altogether, as, enough, 
equally, even, much, more, most, little, less, least, only, quite, scarcely, 
so, very, wholly, etc. 



90 CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

V. Adverbs of Interrogation are used in asking questions. 
The principal adverbs of interrogation are how, when, whence, 
where, wherefore, whither, why, etc. 

Conjunctive Adverbs. 

Conjunctive Adverbs are those which have the nature partly of the 
conjunction and partly of the adverb. In their conjunctive use they 
connect parts of sentences (clauses), with the word modified by the 
clauses. In their adverbial use, they modify some word in the clause 
in which they occur, as, "He claimed the right to defend himself 
when he was attacked." 

Here the clause "when he was attacked" modifies to defend and is 
connected with the word ii modifies by the conjunctive adverb when. 
In its adverbial use when modifies was attacked. 

The principal conjunctive adverbs are after, as, before, how, since, 
therefore, till, until, when, where, wherefore, while, and why. 

Comparison of Adverbs. 

The Inflection of adverbs, like that of adjectives, is called Com- 
parison. 

A t'.w adverbs are compared like adjectives by suffixing 
to the positive er to form tin- comparative, and est fi» form 
the superlative; a-, pos. soon, comp. sooner, sup. soonest. 

Most adverbs thai end with the syllable /// admit the 
form of comparison made by placing before tin- positive 
mors <>r less to form tin- comparative, and most <>r lout to 
form the superlative ; as, pos. easily, comp. mon- easily, 
sup. most easily; pos. frequently, comp. less frequently, sup. 
least frequently. 

In these examples the adverbs more an. I most, less and least, only 
are inflected: dice adverbs, therefore, should !»' parsed as qualifying 

tin' principal adverbs ><isil>i ami frequently, which arc compared, hut 
an- not inflected. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS— EXERCISES. 91 

The following adverbs are compared irregularly: — 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Badly, worse, worst. 

Far, farther, farthest. 

Ill, worse, worst. 

Little, less, least. 

Much, more, most. 

Well, better, best. 

Remarks. 

Many words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes as 
adjectives; as, "When employment no longer affords pleasure, it be- 
comes a burden" ; here, no is an adverb, and qualifies the adverb longer. 
"When they lifted up their eyes, they saw no man"; here, no is an 
adjective, and limits the noun man. 

The principal words which are either adverbs or adjectives, accord- 
ing to. their use, are better, best, first, late, little, less, least, much, more, 
most, near, no, still, well, etc. These words are adverbs when they 
qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, and are adjectives when 
they describe or limit nouns or pronouns. 

The adverb there is sometimes used without any definite meaning 
before a verb, or to begin a sentence; as, "There was nothing gained 
by the effort." When a question is asked, it is placed after the verb, 
as, "Breathes there a man with soul so dead?" When so used, there 
is called an expletive. 

Adverbs are sometimes used independently of other words; as, 
"Well, the worst is past." — "Yes, Christianity must prevail over all 
lands." 

Exercise I. — Tell to which class each of the following adverbs belongs, 
give the reason, and compare it, if it can be compared: — 

Now, perhaps, hardly, hither, seldom, thrice, recently, doubly, 
often, somewhere, yea, well, upwards, thence, enough, surely, sooner, 
quite, henceforth, indeed, never, already, secondly, here, possibly, 
undoubtedly, singly, no, farther, verily. 

Exercise II. — Parse the adverbs in the following sentences: — 

1. — "They are here, but they will soon leave." 

Models. — Here. — Are here. — "Here" is an adverb, "An Adverb is a 
word, etc."; — of place, it answers to the question, Where? — it cannot be 
compared; — it qualifies the verb are. 



92 PREPOSITIONS. 

Soon. — Will leave soon. — "Soon" is an adverb, "An Adverb is a word, 
etc."; — of time, it answers to the question, When.' — it can be compared 
(pos. soon, comp. sooner, sup. soonest); — in the positive degree; — it quali- 
fies the verb will leave. 

2. — "Act promptly when necessity requires it." 

When. — Act when requires (when). — "When" is a conjunctive adverb. 
"A Conjunctive Adverb is one which connects its clause with the word 
that it qualifies, etc.; — it cannot be compared; — it modifies requires, and 
connects the clause when necessity requires it with the verb act, which the 
clause modifies. 

Parse the adverbs in the following sentences: — 

The deep river Bowed noiselessly. How brightly shines the morning 
sun! He rose early and retired late. His friend went to New York and 
thence Bailed to London. Washington was unanimously elected. Still one 
was wanting. The still night was bitterly cold. Come when you shall 
have done your task. Think deliberately and then ac1 promptly. There 
an- few who fail when they apply themselves diligently. There wanders 
one whom better days saw better clad. A little mind may often dwell in 
a great body. Well, death must come t<> us all. Vis, he confessed his 

fault. 

Vane -aid no more than this: — "The cause is had which can not l«ar 
tin- word- of .i dying man." and then expired. 

Iaiuh-i 111 Pane abo the articles, the nouns, tin- pronouns, the 
adject i sis, and tin- verbs, in tin- preceding sentences. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is m word used before ;i noun <>r a pronoun 
to show its relation t<> some preceding word; as, "lie trav- 
eled from New York to New Orleans." A preposition with 
its object form- a prepositional phrase. 

In tlii- sentence, from -how. the relation <«f the noun New Fork 
t.> the verl. traveled; and to -how- the relation of the noun New Orleans 
to the \erli traveled. From and to conned their phrases with the verb 
traveled, which both phrases modify. 

The noun or the pronajjn which follow- the preposition, i- called 
tin- abject of the relation denoted by the preposition, ami is always in 

the objective 
A preposition may also !«• Followed by a participle, a rerb in the 

infinitive mode, or a part of a -entenee (phi 



CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. 93 



CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions are divided into three classes; Simple, Com- 
pound, and Complex. 

The Simple Prepositions are nineteen, namely: — at, after, 
by, down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, since, through, 
till, to, under, up, with. 

Compound Prepositions are usually formed by prefixing a or be to 
some noun, adjective, adverb, or preposition; by uniting two prepo- 
sitions; or by uniting a preposition and an adverb. 

In compound words, a prefixed is a contraction of at, and has the 
meaning of at, in, on, to, etc.; and be was formerly by. 

The compound prepositions formed by prefixing a are abaft, aboard, 
about, above, across, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, 
around, athwart. 

Ths compound prepositions formed by prefixing be are before, behind, 
below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond. 

The compound prepositions formed by uniting two prepositions, 
or a preposition and an adverb, are into, throughout, toward, towards, 
underneath, until, unto, upon, within, without. 

Complex Prepositions are composed of two or more prepositions, or 
of a preposition and some other part of speech, which together express 
one relation; as, "The spring flowed from between the rocks." Here, 
from between is a complex preposition, and shows the relation between 
rocks and flowed. 

As to, as for, from before, from between, from over, over against, out 
of, round about, and a few similar expressions, may be regarded as 
complex prepositions; but according to, contrary to, in respect of, in- 
stead of, etc., should not be classed as such, since in these expressions 
the words may be parsed separately. 

Remark. 

Some words which are generally prepositions become other parts 
of speech when not followed by an object: thus, after, before, by, on, 
since, till, up, until, etc., are sometimes adverbs; and for and since 
are sometimes conjunctions. 



94 EXERCISES— COXJUXC TIOXS. 

Exercise I. — Parse the prepositions in the following sentences: — 

1. — "'The tree is shaken by the wind." 

Model. — By. — Is shaken by wind. — "By" is a simple preposition, "A 
Preposition is a word, etc."; — it is used before the noun wind to show its 
relation to the verb is shaken. 

2. — "A sound of falling water issued from within the cavern." 

From within. — Issued from within cavern. — "From within" is a complex 
preposition, "A Complex Preposition is one composed of two or more prep- 
ositions not forming a single word, which together express one relation"; 
— it La Used before the noun enrern to show its relation to the verb issued. 

3. — "Without industry, we can not succeed." 

Without. — ('mi succeed without industry. — "Without" is a compound 

preposition, "A C pound Preposition is one usually formed, etc"; — it 

is used before the noun industry to show its relation to the verb can succeed. 

Parse all the prepositions in the following sentences: — 

Flowers bloom in summer. Wreaths of smoke ascend through the trees. 

C.e-ar paUSOd upon the brink of the Uuhieon. Many are courageous from 

a dread of Bhame. We cannol love our country with too pure an affection. 
Better i- a little with righteousnesB than great revenues without right. 
One man, eminent above 'lie others for strength, was chosen to lead them. 
The influence of human actions r e aches beyond the grave. 

\\ • -.ii upon a mos sy bank beneath an aged pine, among whose branches 

tin- south wind ma. le pi isanl music, while below us, at a little distance, the 

of a tiny brook sang merrily as they danced Bwiftly down the slo|*>, 

about to 1m- lost in 'In- flood of the mighty river. Help from without one's 

self i- often enfeebling in it- effects, but help from within invariably invig- 

i-i ii -Parse also the articles, the noun-, the pronouns, the 
adjectives, the verbs, and the adverbs, in tin- preceding sentences, 

i8i 111 — < enoes containing the dim-rent kinds of 

prep..-:' 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction i- a word used to conned the words, the 
parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between which it is 
placed; a-, "He is patient and happy, because he is a Chris- 
tian." 

In tlii- example, and Connects tin- words patient and happy, while 

!- the parte "i" the sentence (members), lie is patient 
iiml happy, and In u a Christian. 



CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS— EXERCISES. 95 

Though relative pronouns connect the nouns or the pronouns to 
which they relate with subsequent parts of sentences, yet they must 
never be parsed as conjunctions; some grammarians, however, call 
them conjunctive pronouns. 

Other parts of speech, such as pronominal adjectives, verbs, ad- 
verbs, and prepositions, when used simply as connectives, should be 
parsed as conjunctions. 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions may be divided into two general classes; 
Copulative and Disjunctive. 

A Copulative Conjunction is one which denotes an addition, a con- 
sequence, a purpose, a reason, or a supposition. 

The copulative conjunctions are also, and, as, because, both, even, 
for, if, seeing, since, so, that, then, and therefore. 

A Disjunctive Conjunction is one which denotes a choice, a com- 
parison, a separation, or a restriction. 

The disjunctive conjunctions are although, but, either, else, except, 
lest, neither, nevertheless, nor, notwithstanding, or, provided, than, 
though, unless, yet, whereas, and whether. 

Certain conjunctions belonging to the foregoing classes are used 
in pairs, and are called Correlative Conjunctions, because the one 
calls for the other and relates to it, and together they connect the same 
words or sentences. 

The correlative conjunctions are as — so, although — yet, both — and, 
either — or, if — then, neither — nor, whether — or, and though — yet. 

The former in each of these pairs may be called the correlative of 
the latter, and together they connect the same parts, etc. 

Sometimes two or more words not united are taken together and 
form what is called a Complex Conjunction. 

The principal complex conjunctions are as if, as well as, but that, 
forasmuch as, except that, even though, inasmuch as, seeing that, etc. 

Exercise I. — Parse the conjunctions in the following sentence : — "Though 
truth and error each exerts great influence, yet truth must prevail, inas- 
much as it is the greater power." 

Models. — And. — Truth and error. — "And" is a conjunction, "A Con- 
junction is a word, etc."; — copulative, because it denotes, etc.; — it connects 
the two nouns truth and error between which it is placed. 



96 INTERJECTIONS— CLASSES OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Though. — Though truth and error each exerts great influence, (yet) truth 
must prevail. — "Though" is a conjunction, "A Conjunction is, etc."; — it is 
the correlative of yet, and with yet connects the two sentences above given. 

Yet. — (Though) truth and error each exerts great influence, yet truth must 
prevail. — "Yet" is a conjunction, "A Conjunction, etc."; — itisthe correlative 
of though, and with though connects the two sentences between which it is 
placed. 

Inasmuch as. — Truth must prevail, inasmuch as it is the ,/nater power. — 
"Inasmuch as" is a complex conjunction, "A Complex Conjunction is, etc."; 
— it connects the two sentences, Truth must prevail, anil it is the greater 
power, between which it is placed. 

Parse all the conjunctions in the following sentences: — 

Light ami heat proceed from the sun. [fwecannol remove pun, we may 
at least alleviate it. Both men went to sea. hut only one returned. The 
prisoner at the bar both planned and executed the deed, as 1 will prove. 

The unhappy man acknowledged his weakness, yet persisted in the habit. 

I will not argue with you. for, though 1 can convince your judgment, I 
cannot convert your heart. Neither threat nor punishment moved him from 

his purpose. The principal nobles were delivered up as hostages and were 

thrown into prison, although honorable treatment had been promised to 

them. The ancient philosophers disputed whether the world was made by 
chance "r by a divine mind. 

Exkbcisi 11 Parse also the articles, the nouns, the pronouns, the 
adjectives, the verbs, the adverbs, and the prepositions, in the foregoing 
■en tent 



IN T KIM ECTIONS. 

An Interjection i> a word used in exclamation, to express 
some emotion of the mind; as, Hal pshaw! alatl halloo! 

CLASSES OF INTERJECTIONS. 

The Following are the prineipal clUQOCT <> r interjections: 

1. Those expressive "f jou or exultation; a^, ah, aim, hey, hurrah, 

2. « >f sorrow; as, '//'. Mas, oh; 

::. I >f surprise <>r wonder; a^, ha, indeed, what; 

l. ( >f contempt <>r august; a->. l>ah, faugh, fie, }<>!i, humph, pah, 

pish, pshaw, tush, tut; 



WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 97 

5. — Of attention or calling aloud; as, ahoy, behold, halloo, hark, ho, 
lo, look, see, soho, whoa; 

6. — Of silence; as, hist, hush, mum, whist; 

7. — Of addressing, saluting, or taking leave; as, adieu, farewell, 
hail, good-by, good-day, 0; 

8. — Of laughter; as, ha-ha, he-he, te-he; 

9. — Of interrogation; as, eh, hey. 

is always a capital, and is used before the name of a person or 
thing addressed. 

Some words used as interjections may be parsed as other parts of 
speech by supplying the words evidently omitted ; thus, horrible ! means, 
it is horrible; see ! means, see thou or you. 

Exercise I. — Parse the interjection in the following sentence: — "Hurrah! 
the day is gained." 

Model. — Hurrah. — (It has no grammatical connection.) — "Hurrah" is 
an interjection, "An Interjection is a word, etc."; — it is expressive of 
exultation. 

Parse the interjections in the following sentences: — 

O king, live forever! Oh! what a fall was there, my countrymen! Few, 
alas! survived to tell the tale. What! feed a child's body and starve its 
soul! Well, good-by, I hope to see you again. Alasi by some degree of 
woe, we every bliss must gain. 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouns, the pronouns, the articles, the adjectives, 
the verbs, the adverbs, the prepositions, and the conjunctions in the pre- 
ceding sentences. 

Exercise III. — Compose sentences, each of which shall contain all the 
parts of speech. 



WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF 
SPEECH. 



The following are some of the most important words 
which may belong to different parts of speech, according 
to their different uses: — 

As is (1) a Conjunction simply, when it means since, because; 
"As he was ambitious, I slew him." 



98 WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 

(2) — an Adverb, when it denotes time, degree, or manner; 
as, "Do as I do." — "He spoke as we entered." 
Before is (1) an Adverb, when it denotes time simply; as, "The Indians 
never saw a ship before." 
(2) — a Preposition, when followed by a noun or a pronoun 
in the objective case; as, " The world was before him. 
So also are after, ere, till, until. 
Both is (1) a Pronominal Adjective, when it limits or represents a 
noun; as, "Both criminals were condemned, and both 
were hung." 
(2)— a conjunction, when it aids in connecting words or 
sentences; a>, "James bath reads and writes well." So 
also are i itlur and m itlnr. 
But is (1) a Preposition, when it means except; as, "All remained 
but him." 
.in Adverb, when it means only; as, "lie was but one 

among the many who were slain." 

(3)— a Conjunction, when it connects words or sentences 

;i-. " I go, '"'/ I will return. - ' 

For is ill a Conjunction, when it connects parts of sentences 
(members), and U used in giving a reason; as, "They 
will never succeed, far the] are inattentive." 
a Preposition, when it is followed by a noun or a pro- 
noun in the objective case; a-. "Prizes were awarded 

"I conduct." 
Si also i^ notwithstanding. 

Since i- il i a Preposition, when followed by a noun in the objective 

denoting a portion of time, <>r a pasl event; as, 
greater event has happened rina the Revolution." 
i Conjunction, when it denotes a reason; as, "The 
boy must ol i father commands." 

in Adverb simply, or a conjunctive adverb, when it 
denote, time: a~. "I have not Men him .v/mr."-"TffO 

years have passed rina it happened." 

That is (l i :i Relative Pronoun, when who, whom, or which may l>e 
substituted for it; a>, "Solomon was the wisest man 

that ever lived." "All thut heard him were astonished." 
(2) — I Pronominal Adjective, when it limits or represents 



WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 99 

a noun; as, "That event caused joy in all hearts." — 
"This word may be used for that." 

(3) — a Conjunction, when it is used to connect sentences; 
as, "Live well, that you may die well." 
Then is (1) a Conjunction, when it means in that case, or in con- 
sequence; as, "If this is justice, then I want none of it." 

(2) — an Adverb, when it denotes time; as, "Alfred was then 
king." 
What is (1) a Relative Pronoun, when thing which or things which 
may be substituted for it; as, "What he sought, he ob- 
tained." 

(2) — an Interrogative Pronoun, when it is used to ask a 
question; as, "What caused the accident?" 

(3) — a Pronominal Adjective simply, when it limits a noun; 
as, "What fame Caesar acquired!" 

(4) — a Pronominal Adjective and a Relative Pronoun at the 
same time, when it limits a noun, and when that which; 
or those which may be substituted for it; as, "What 
vessels survived the storm were captured." 

(5) — an Adverb, when it means partly; as, "What by fire 
and what by sword, the whole country was laid waste." 

(6) — an Interjection, when used as an exclamation express- 
ing surprise; as, "What! did he commit that crime?" 
While is (1) a Noun, when it denotes space of time; as, "For a while 
we thought him innocent." 

(2) — an Adverb, when it denotes during the time in which 
as, "I will work while you rest." 

(3) — a Verb, when it means to spend or pass; as, "He trav- 
eled merely to while away the time." 
Yet is (1) — an Adverb, when it means in addition, thus far, at the 
present time; as, "He adduced yet one more argument 
to prove his point." 

(2) — a Conjunction, when it means notwithstanding, never- 
theless; as, "Though the land has become a wilderness, 
yet industry may reclaim it." 



PAET III. 

SYNTAX. 



Syntax treats of sentences, and teaches how to con- 
struct thcin from words. 

A Sentence is two or more words (one of which must 
he a finite verb) so combined as to make complete sense; 
as, "Water (lows." — "Experience gives wisdom." 

The complete sense contained in a sentence is called 
a Proposition, and every sentence i> said to contain a prop- 
osition. 

The name sentena i- applied to all the words taken in combina- 
tion; proposition, t<> the thought which they express; therefore, "Water 
flows," i^ both a sentence and a proposition. 

The expression of thought in successive sentences i- termed Dis* 
course. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO USE. 

Sentences may be divided, according to tin- manner in 
which tiny are used, into Declarative, [nterrogative, Im- 
perative, and Exclamatory. 

A Declarative Sentence i> one which is used to affirm or 
to deny; as, "The sun shines." "Dishonesty will not 
prosper." 

Declarative sentences an- far more numerous in discourse than 

those belonging t<» the other (•las-.-., they are converted into sentences 

of tin- uthe! classes liv the manner of their use. 
■ in.., 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FORM. 101 

An Interrogative Sentence is one which is used to ask a 
question; as, "Does the sun shine?" 

An Imperative Sentence is one which is used to express 
a command, an entreaty, or a permission, by means of a 
verb in the imperative mode; as, "Let the sun shine:" — 
"Be persuaded." 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one which is used in exclama- 
tion, or to express strong emotion; as, "How the sun shines! " 
— "Alas, we are lost!" 

Exercise. — Mention to which class each of the following sentences 
belongs, and give the reason: — 

Model 1. — "The sun gives light." — This is a declarative sentence, 
because it is one which is used to affirm something. 

2. — "Obey your parents." — This is an imperative sentence, because it is 
one which is used to express a command by means of a verb in the impera- 
tive mode. 

The winds blow. The stars are shining. Truth lies in a well. What is 
truth? Control your passions. Great offices need great men. Oh! how 
thoughtless I am! Who conquered Gaul? Ceesar conquered Gaul. Know 
thyself. May you be happy. What shadows we pursue! Gratitude is a 
noble emotion. Bring me the captive now. Oh! what a fall was there, my 
countrymen! The buds will expand into leaves. If God be with us, who 
can be against us? Between virtue and vice there can be no middle path. 
If thine enemy hunger, feed him. In what year did Burgoyne surrender? 
O for a lodge in some vast wilderness! Faint hearts make feeble hands. 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FORM. 

Sentences are divided, according to their forms, into 
Simple, Complex, and Compound. 

A Simple Sentence is one which contains a single proposi- 
tion; as, "I will go." 

A Complex Sentence is one which contains one or more 
clauses; as, "I shall go token you return." — "He who 
labors will succeed." — "He said that he would go." — "That 
the earth is round is admitted." 



102 CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FORM. 

A Clause is a group of words containing a subject and 
predicate and used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 

A Phrase is a group of related words which does not con- 
tain a subject and predicate, and which is used as a noun, 
an adjective or an adverb. 

Remark. — A clause is an essential part of a complex sentence. A 
phrase is not an essential part of a sentence. 

Example 1. — In the sentence, "That idleness leads to crime is well 
known," the clause that idleness lead* to crime is a group of words con- 
taining a subject, idlenes 8, and a predicate, leads to crime. This clause 
is used as a noun, being the subject of the complex sentence. The 
predicate of the complex sentence is is well known. 

Example 2. In the sentence, "The boy who came remained," the 
clause who came contains a subject, who, and a predicate, came. This 
clause modifies the Doun /«»/ in the same way that an adjective would 
modify it. 

Example 3. In the sentence, "I shall go when you return," the 
clause, »•/"" you return, modifies the verb shall go in the same way 
that an adverb would modify it. 

A Compound Sentence is one which contains two or more 
sentences, simple or complex; a-. "The trees are .shaken 
by the wind, and the hares strew Die ground."— "I uill go, 

hut UOU must staii until I return." 

Members. Tin- simple or the complex sentences con- 
tained in a compound sentence an- called Members. 

Example. In the compound sentence, "Lei us work diligently, 
and, if Providence smile, success will crown our efforts" the mem- 
bers are the simple sentence /.</ "■-• work diligently and the complex 

sentence if l'meid, ncr smile, SUCCeSS will CTOWn our efforts. 

Member- may be named ;icc<>rditiL r to their position in the .sen- 
tence. ;is first im ml; r. second member, etc. 

'rut. Connection "i Clauses \\i» Members. — The 
clauses of complex sentences arc usually joined by relative 
pronouns, by conjunctive adverbs, <>r by conjunctions de- 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FORM. 103 

noting cause, comparison, consequence, purpose, restriction, 
or supposition to the words that they modify. 

The members of a compound sentence are usually con- 
nected by conjunctions denoting addition, separation, or 
choice. 

Sometimes the conjunctions are not mentioned; as, "I wish he 
would come," for "I wish that he would come." — "Time is golden, 
{therefore) seize the present moment." 

Sometimes the qualifying clause is used without any connecting 
word; as, "The greater the necessity, the greater the effort. " 

Exercise. — Classify the following sentences; mention the propositions, 
clauses, members, and connectives, and state the reasons: — 

Model 1. — "Books afford instruction." — This is a sentence, "A sentence 
is two or more words, etc."; — declarative, because it affirms something; — 
simple, because it contains a single proposition. 

2. — "Did you see the gentleman who called yesterday?" — This is a sen- 
tence, "A Sentence is two or more words, etc."; — interrogative, because it is 
used to ask a question; — complex, because it contains a modifying clause, 
who called yesterday. This clause modifies the noun gentleman, therefore 
it is an adjective modifier. 

3. — "The sun sets and the mountains are shaded." — This is a sentence, 
"A Sentence is, etc."; — declarative, because, etc.; — compound, because it 
contains two simple sentences, The sun sets and the mountain's are shaded, — 
which are members connected by the conjunction and. 

Man proposes, but God disposes. Falsehood aids no honest cause. Take 
heed to thy thoughts. The wise man is happy when he has gained his own 
approbation. We should learn to economize our time. Let us be temperate 
in all things. Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to any 
people. Every wrong opinion tends to do harm in this world. Laziness 
grows on people; it begins in cobwebs, and ends in iron chains. Adversity 
is the mint in which God stamps upon us his image and his superscription. 

Soft, purple clouds come sailing over the sky, and through their vapory 
folds the winking stars shine, white as silver. If we study history, we 
should endeavor to obtain books of the best authority. As soon as it touched 
the water, it sank. The more we have, the more we want. Who lives vir- 
tuously, dies happy. Talk to the point, and stop when you have reached 
it. The more you think, the better will you express your thoughts. What- 
ever be the consequences, I will abide by them. Besides the falsehoods 
which people designedl}' speak, there is a kind which springs from negligence, 
hastiness, or a warm imagination. 

All human weal and woe, learn thou to make thine own. Acquaint thy- 



104 DIVISIONS OF SYNTAX. 

self with God, if thou wouldst taste his works. Columbus was the first 
European who set his foot in the new world which he had discovered. 
There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. I sat down on a little hill within 
sight of my home, but I did not venture to approach it, for I felt remorse 
as I thought of the recklessness with which 1 had squandered my earnings. 
He replied that he hastened to deliver the message as soon as he received it. 

Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 

Had in her sober livery all things clad. 

He who ascends to mountain tops, shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapped in clouds and snow. 

DIVISIONS OF SYNTAX. 

Syntax may be considered under two divisions; Analysis 
and Synthesis. 

Analysis means a taking apart: Synthesis, " putting together. 

Analysis, in grammar, is the separation of sentences 
into the parts which compose them. 

Synthesis is the construction or formation of sentences 
from words. 

By tin- former process, the pans of ;i sentence, their connections, 
ami their various qualifications, are shown. 

By the latter process, the principles relating to the combination 
of the different classes "f words, an<l the manner of applying these 
principles in the formati >f sentences, an- shown. 

These two processes should he carried on together in order to under- 
stand fully tlie nature of sentences. 

Ellipsis is tin omission of one or more words, phrases, 
or clauses, necessary to complete tin- sense and construction 
of a sentence; a-, "James's conduct is more praiseworthy 

than Henry's (conduct)." "Gold is scarcer than silver (ifl 

Beard 

Pleonasm i> the use of more words than are absolutely 

necessary to express an Hea; as, "Truth, what is it?" mean- 
ing, "What i^ truth?" -"He mts with his eyes, and hears 
with hi* airs." 



ANALYSIS. 105 



ANALYSIS. 



THE PARTS OF SENTENCES. 

The parts of Sentences, as contained in discourse, are 
the Essential, the Qualifying, the Connecting, and the 
Independent. 

Essential Parts. — The Essential Parts are those with- 
out which a sentence can not be formed. 

Every sentence contains two essential parts; the Subject 
and the Predicate. 

The Subject is that of which something is said or as- 
serted; as, "Water flows." 

The Predicate is that which is said or asserted of the 
subject; as "Water flows." 

A subject and a predicate combined form a proposition. 

The term proposition applies to simple sentences, the main state- 
ment and clauses of complex sentences and the members of compound 
sentences. 

Example 1. — In the sentence, "Water flows," water is that con- 
cerning which flows is asserted; and flows is that which is asserted 
of water. 

Water is, therefore, the subject, and flows, the predicate; and the 
two parts combined make the sentence or proposition, namely, "Water 
flows." 

Example 2. — In the sentence, "The waters of the Mississippi River 
flow into the Gulf of Mexico," The waters of the Mississippi River is 
that of which flow into the Gulf of Mexico is asserted; and flow into 
the Gulf of Mexico is that which is asserted of The waters of the Missis- 
sippi River. 

The waters of the Mississippi River is, therefore, the subject, and 
flow into the Gulf of Mexico is the predicate; the two parts combined 



106 DISTINCTIONS OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

make the sentence or proposition, namely, "The waters of the Missis- 
sippi River flow into the Gulf of Mexico." 

Example 3. — In the sentence, "The waters of the Mississippi River 
and the streams of Texas flow southward and empty into the Gulf 
of Mexico," The waters of the Mississippi Hirer and the streams of 
Texas is that of which flow southward anil empty into the Gulf of Mexico 
is asserted, and flow southward and empty into the Gulf of Mexico is 
that which is asserted of The waters of the Mississippi River and the 
streams of Texas. 

The wdcters of the Mississippi River and the streams of Texas is, 
therefore, the subject, and flow southward and empty into the Gulf of 
Mexico, the predicate; the two parts combined make the sentence or 
proposition, namely, "The waters of the Mississippi River and the 
streams of Texas flow southward and empty into the Gulf of Mexico." 



DISTINCTIONS OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

The subject may be distinguished as Simple, Complete, 
or Compound. 

The predicate also may l>e distinguished as Simple 1 , 
Complete, or < lompound. 

These distinctions can be perceived in the three examples given on 
the preceding page. 

Simple Subject. 

The Simple Subject i> a noun or a pronoun, or some word, 
phrase, or clause, u^«<l as a noun; as, "Water Hows." — "It 
flows." -"They i> a pronoun." "To deceive is shameful." 

"That the earth is round can be proved." — "'Mighi 
make* right,' i- often quoted." "Practising virtue for 

virtue's Bake h foreign to OUT nature." 

When clauses arc- used as subjects, they must, of course, be them- 
selves separated into subjects ami predicates. 

When the simple 9ubjec1 i-- a noun, a pronoun, or some word used 
as a noun, it is called tin* subjectriiominative. 



SIMPLE PREDICATE, ETC. 107 

When a phrase or a clause is used as a subject, it may be called a 
subject-phrase or a subject-clause. 

Many sentences have a simple subject only; as, "Cwsar conquered 
Gaul." 

Simple Predicate. 

The Simple Predicate is always and simply a finite verb; 
as, "Water floivs." — "It might have flowed." 

The simple predicate may be called the predicate-verb. 
Many sentences have a simple predicate only; as, "The spirit of 
true liberty was extinguished." 

Complete Subject. 

The Complete Subject is the simple subject taken with 
all its modifiers. 

The modifiers of a word are those words, phrases, or 
clauses, which limit or qualify its meaning or use. 

The complete subject includes all that portion which 
precedes the simple predicate, in sense or order of thought; 
as, " The waters of the Mississippi River flow." 

In the example given, the noun waters is the simple subject, and 
the article the, and the phrase, of the Mississippi River, are the modi- 
fiers of the simple subject: together, these three portions constitute 
the complete subject. 

Remark. — The order of expression does not always correspond 
to the order of thought, or the natural order. This is especially the 
case in poetry. Thus, in the sentence, "Sweet are the uses of adver- 
sity," the natural order is, "The uses of adversity are sweet." 

When the parts of sentences, or their qualifications, occur out of 
their natural order, the sentences are said to be inverted. 

Complete Predicate. 
The Complete Predicate is the simple predicate taken 
with all its modifiers; as, "Waters flow into the Gulf of 
Mexico." 



108 COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. 

The complete predicate includes all that portion of the 
sentence which succeeds the subject in the order of thought. 

In the example, the finite verb flow is the simple predicate, and the 
phrase into the Gulf of Mexico is its modifying phrase: these two por- 
tions constitute the complete predicate. 

Compound Subject and Compound Predicate. 

A Compound Subject is one which consists of two or more 
subjects, united by one or more conjunctions; as, " Waters 
and streams flow." 

A Compound Predicate is one which consists of two or 
more predicates, united by one or more conjunctions; as, 
"Waters foir and empty." 

A simple sentence or single proposition often contains a compound 
subject combined with a compound predicate. Such a sentence may 
be changed into a compound sentence by supplying the proper sub- 
ject for each predicate-verl>, or the proper predicate-verb for each 

subject; but this must not l>e done, unless the obscurity of the passage 
demands it. 

In the sentence, "The water- of the Mississippi River and the 
streams of Texas Bow southward and empty into the Gulf of Mexico," 
the subject is compound, consisting of two subjects, The waters of the 
Mississippi River and the streams of Texas, which are united l>y the 
conjunction and, combined with a compound predicate consisting of 
the two predicates flow southward and empty into the Otdf of Mexico, 

which are united l.y the e< >n junction and. 

Modifying Parts. The words, phrases, and clauses used 
ns modifiers in a sentence constitute the modifying or quali- 
fying parts. 

Connecting Parts. -Relative pronouns, conjunctions, 
and conjunctive adverbs, are called the Connecting Parts of 

it sentence. 

The relative pronoun is often an essential and a connecting part at 
the same time; as, "He who runs may read." 



EXERCISE ON SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES, ETC. 109 

Who is here the subject of the clause who runs, which qualifies the 
pronoun he, and it also connects the clause with the word he. In the 
sentence, "The man whose horse was stolen has discovered the thief," 
whose is both a qualifying and a connecting part. 

Exercise on Subjects and Predicates, Simple and Complete. — 
Classify and analyze the following sentences, mentioning the simple and 
the complete subjects, and the simple and the complete predicates, — according 
to the models: — 

Model 1. — "Every man must die." 

This is a sentence, "A Sentence is, etc."; — declarative, because it is used, 
etc.; — -simple, because it contains, etc. 

The complete subject is Every man. The simple subject, or subject- 
nominative, is man. The simple predicate is must die. 

2. — "The love of money is the root of all evil." 

This is a sentence, "A Sentence is, etc."; — declarative, because it is used, 
etc.; — simple, because it contains, etc. 

The complete subject is The love of money; — the complete predicate is is 
the root of all evil. The simple subject or subject-nominative is love; — the 
simple predicate or predicate-verb is is. 

Ships sail. Birds sing. The bird sings sweetly. The ship sails down 
the stream. Hills rise above hills. The top of the hill is reached. No 
man lives to himself. Great virtues are rare. Nature is full of variet3 r . 
Wooden fences divide the adjoining fields. The strangeness of his conduct 
occasioned much remark. Time rolls on. Such a sight I never saw. 

A high order of intellect is required for the discovery of truth. In a calm 
sea every man is a pilot. Winter reveals what summer conceals. From a 
wild and lonely spot issued a small stream. What a wonderful piece of work 
it is ! To do good forget not. Genius needs industry as much as industry 
needs genius. Gluttony kills more than the sword. While I was waiting, 
I passed the time in reading the " Century," which I had purchased at a 
neighboring book-stand. 

I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat. The farmer raises grain, and the 
merchant sells it. Several years had passed away, and Ralph had almost 
forgotten the circumstance. Twelve years of successful industry made me 
a rich man; and, as soon as I could settle my affairs, I returned to England. 
There are three periods for gathering the leaves of the tea-plant; the first 
commences about the middle of April; the second begins at mid-summer; 
and the last is accomplished during August and September. 

To relieve the poor is a source of joy. To do good was the key-note of his 
life. "Much coin, much care," is a proverb, the truth of which many would 
be glad to prove. "Beware the dog," met their eyes as they opened the 
gate. The "No admittance here" was not rigidly enforced; a few dimes 
soon initiated us into all the mysteries of the engine-room. That pride has 
many a fall is every proud man's experience. 



110 INDEPEXDEXT PARTS. 

Exercise on Subjects and Predicates, Simple, Complete, and 
Compound. 

Model. 1. — "Days and months come and go." — This is a sentence, 
declarative, simple. The subject is compound, consisting of the two sim- 
ple subjects or subject-nominatives, dat/s and months. The predicate is 
also compound, consisting of the two simple predicates or predicate-verbs, 
come and go. 

2. — "Sensual pleasure weakens and debases the mind." — This is a sen- 
tence, declarative, simple. The complete subject is Sensual pleasure; the 
subject-nominative is pleasure. The predicate is compound, consisting of 
the two predicates, weakens {the mind) and debases the mind. The predicate- 
verbs are weakens and debases. 

Classify and analyze the following sentences according to the appropriate 
models : — 

Truth and candor possess a powerful charm. The Bible and nature are 
consistent. The tide ebbs and Hows. Come and see. Demosthenes and 
Cicero were the greatest orators of antiquity. In Him we live, move, and 
have our being. Pure air and free exercise are indispensable to physical 
development. Flowers bud, bloom, and die. 1 must sink, or swim. They 
fought, bled, and died for freedom, lit" wisdom of God and bis goodness 
are unbounded. Are Beets and armies necessary to a work of love and 

reconciliation ? 

Coal, iron and lime, are found in vast quantities. Several important rail- 
roads extend through the state, and add greatly to the facilities of inter- 
course. 

[ndepi ndent Parts. Words and phrases which neither 
conned nor qualify are called Independent rails. 

The independent parts are words which are useil as the names of 
persons or things addressed or uttered in exclamation, phrases con- 
t aining Bueh words, interjections, and certain adverbs: -"Charles, 
when <li«l you come?" "My dear friend, I am glad to see you." - 
"Ohl what joy filled liis soul '" "WeU, the time lias come." 

The words or the phrases also whirl) denote merely subjects of 
thought, which stand a|urt. or are u ed parenthetically, are usually 
independent parts; as, "The boy ohl where was he?" — "Truth - 
whal is it'.'" "To ■-"•/ it" least, it was very unexpected." 

Exercise on i in'. Independent Parts ■>> Sentences.— Analyze the 
independent parte contained in the following sentences : — 

Model. — "Wretched man of 1>1 1. what hast thou done?" 

This sentence contains an independent part, namely, the phrase Wretdted 
man <d ui,„,d; — it i independent, because it does not qualify the subject or 
the predicate, 



QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SIMPLE SUBJECT. Ill 

Gentlemen of the jury, listen to my words. Father, must I stay? There 
is none left. Hurrah! hurrah! the field is won. My kite, how fast and far 
it flew ! Well, if I admit your proposition, what follows ? My little fellow, 
can you tell where Mr. Brown lives? Greece, there is magic in the sound! 
A hot day this, gentlemen. No; I will not remind you of these things. 

"Our country! Right or wrong, our country!" — is the sentiment always 
correct? O disgrace upon manhood! will you falter now? O liberty! O 
sound once delightful to every Roman ear! hast thou then left us forever? 

Scholars! jurists! artists! philanthropists! heroes of a Christian age, 
companions of a celestial knighthood, go forth, be brave, loyal, and suc- 
cessful. Ah! my friends, what lips these were! 

Bird of the broad and sweeping wing, 
Thy home is high in heaven! 

The Qualifications of the Simple Subject. 

The Simple Subject, when it is a noun, may be modified 
in the following ways: — 

1. — By an article; as, "The hour has come." 

2. — By an explanatory (appositional) noun or pronoun in the nomi- 
native case; as, "Friend William has come." — "John himself has 
come." — "James, the blacksmith, is strong." 

3. — By a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case; as, "Pleasure's 
hour has come." — "My hour has come." 

4. — By an adjective; as, "Pleasant hours were spent." — " Every man 
sins." - 

5. — By a participle; as, "Hours appointed have begun." 

6. — By an infinitive; as, "Hours to be improved have begun." 

7. — By a prepositional phrase; as, "Hours oj rest have come." 

8. — By a clause; as, "Men who will work, have come." — "Proofs 
that he was guilty were numerous." 

When the simple subject is a pronoun, it may have all the quali- 
fications of a noun, except that made by a noun or a pronoun in the 
possessive case. 

The same subject, when it is a noun, may have all the preceding 
qualifications in the same sentence. 

Exercise. — Mention (1) the complete subject; (2) the subject noun or 
pronoun; and (3) its modifiers, in each of the following sentences: — 
Model. — "The ripe apples fall to the ground." 



112 QUALIFICATIONS OF WORDS QUALIFYING, ETC. 

In this sentence, the complete subject is The ripe apples; the subject 
noun is apples; its modifiers are the article the and the adjective ripe. 

The man himself is present. The voice of nature cries aloud. The yellow 
flakes of gold glistened among the rocks. A gloomy forest of pines ap- 
peared in the distance. The gift of prophecy is no longer bestowed on 
man. Our glorious country has achieved a proud pre-eminence among the 
nations of the earth. Few who heard his words could withhold their sym- 
pathies. Lions, being satisfied, are for the time harmless. Charles's indul- 
gent father yielded where he should have refused. They each required 
assistance. He, Washington, is all our own. The secret acts of men are 
known only to the Almighty. An opportunity to leave was allowed to 
every scholar. Children, being praised, become vain. I, James Brown, 
having seen, can truly testify. The suppliant's prayer for mercy was 
unheeded. 



The Qualifications of Words Qualifying the Simple Subject. 
Qualifying words may themselves be modified thus: — 

I. A noun may !><• modified in all respects as the subject noun. 

II. An adjective may !><• modified. 

l. -By a prepositiona] phrase; as, "Full of run." 

By an adverb; as, "Very full of care." 
3. — By an infinitive; as, "Heavy to be borne." 

The qualifying adverb may itself be i lified: 

1. By a prepositiona] phrase; as, "Your letter, very full, agreeably 
t<> promise, of interesting new-, has been received." 

2. By another adverb; as, "Demands »"/ very exorbitant may Ik* 
satisfied." 

III. An infinitive, or a participle, may be modified, 

1. — By an object ; as, "Quickness to lake offence should !>«• avoided." 
— "A rule directing you shall \»- given." 

2. By a prepositiona] phrase; as, "The time t" acl with energy 
has come." "A man acting with promptness i> needed." 

3. — Hv an adverb; as, "The time to ad promptly lias come." — "A 

man acting promptly may gain liis aim." 

4. — By an infinitive; a^, "The time i" begin to improve has come." 
"Moments requiring to l>< improved are now here." 



EXERCISES. 113 



Remarks. 

An infinitive, or a participle with its modifiers constituting a phrase, 
may be used as a simple subject. 

The participle when thus used may be qualified by a possessive; as, 
"His telling the truth saved his life." 

An infinitive, or a participle, when used as a subject, may be quali- 
fied by a noun, an adjective, or a participle used independently (or 
abstractly); as, "To be a man." — "To be virtuous." — "To live never 
seeing the light of day." — "Being a man," etc. 

It seems necessary to state here, that the infinitive or the participle 
may have, either when qualifying the subject, or when constituting 
a subject, the qualifications of the simple predicate or predicate-verb. 

The nominative independent may be qualified in nearly every respect 
as the subject-nominative is qualified. 

In like manner the nouns or the pronouns in independent parts 
which denote mere subjects of thought, etc., may be qualified. 

Exercise. — Mention (1) the simple subject; (2) its qualifying words; 
(3) the modifiers of the qualifying words; and (4) the whole or complete sub- 
ject, in each of the following sentences : — 

Model 1. — "The truth of this proposition is evident." 

In this sentence, the simple subject is the noun truth; its modifiers are 
the article the and phrase of this proposition; the pronominal adjective this 
is the modifier of the noun proposition. 

The complete subject is, The tridh of this proposition. 

2. — "Being placed at the head of animated nature by the gift of reason, 
ought we not to improve this glorious faculty ?" 

In this sentence, the simple subject is the pronoun we; this is qualified by 
the participle being placed. Being placed is qualified by the phrases at the 
head of animated nature and by the gift of reason: in the first phrase, at the 
head, the noun head is qualified b}' the article the, and by the phrase of 
animated nature, in which the noun nature is modified by the part. adj. 
animated; in the second phrase, by the gift, the noun gift is qualified by the 
article the, and by the phrase, of reason. 

The complete subject is we, being placed at the head of animated nature 
by the gift of reason. 

3. — "The request to be allowed to attend the opening ceremonies in a 
body was granted." 

In this sentence, the simple subject is the noun request; this is modified 
by the article the, and by the infinitive to be allowed. To be allowed is quali- 
fied by the second infinitive to attend; to attend is completed by its object 



114 QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SIMPLE PREDICATE. 

ceremonies, and modified by the phrase in a body; ceremonies is qualified 
by the article the and by the participial adjective opening, and a qualifies 
body in the phrase in a body. 

The soft breezes of early summer are rustling the leaves. The strength 
of his mind overcame every calamity. Man. the occupant of the soil, was as 
wild as the savage scene. Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's self. 
The order to unfurl the sails was obeyed with alacrity. The practice of 
embalming was common in ancient Egypt. To what holier service can a 
nation's lifetime be devoted? Alexander, the conqueror of the Persian 
empire, died at Babylon. The preservation of our civil and religious rights 
demands prompt and unwearied action. Conscience, enlightened by the 
wortl of God. is a faithful monitor. An active daily press, vigilant from 
party interest, watches the progress of society. 

Youth, unadmonished by a guide, will trust to any fair outside. Over- 
head bends the blue and sunny sky. The whole mountain side on the 
western bank of the river above Thebes is one vast city of the dead. A 
friendly Indian, pursuing the chase, met them. Wild-looking men with 
black, snaky locks and eyes thai shone like the torches, were devouring 
their macaroni. In a remote Geld stood a large tulip-tree, apparently of a 
century's growth. Was there not true heroism in this boy's conduct? 

Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again; 

The eternal years of < - ><>d are hers; 
Hut Error, wounded, writhes in pain. 

And dil s among hi- worshipers. 

The Qualifications of the Simple Predicate. 

The simple predicate or predicate-verb may be <<>in- 
pleted or modified in the following ways: — 

1. — It may be completed by a noun or a pronoun in the nominative 
case, which means the same person or thing as the subject-nominative; 
as, "Kings an- m //." "I am he." "Napoleon was proclaimed 
emperor." "Pompey retired victor." 

The predicate-verb i- thus completed only when it is an intransitive 

verb, or a transitive verb in the passive voire. 

This <|tialifier may be called tin- predicate-nominative. 

This qualifier may !»• added by means of the conjunction at; as, 

" lie acted as iiniiiiitor." 

2, By a noun or a pronoun in the objective, railed an object oom- 
plemenl ; a-, "They found mid." 



QUALIFICATION OF WORDS, ETC. 115 

The predicate-verb is thus completed only when it is a transitive 
verb or an intransitive verb used transitively, in the active voice. 
The predicate-verb may be modified in the following ways: — 
1. — By a prepositional phrase; as, "He came to school." 
2. — By an adjective describing or limiting the subject, called a sub- 
jective predicate adjective; as, "Truth is eternal." 

3. — By a participle relating to the subject; as, "He came running." 
4. — By an adverb; as, "William came speedily." 
5. — By an infinitive; as, "He came to see." 

6. — By a clause; as, "William discovered that he was ignorant." 
One predicate-verb may have nearly all the preceding qualifica- 
tions in the same sentence. 

The Qualifications of the Words which Qualify the Simple 
Predicate. 

Words which qualify the simple predicate may them- 
selves be qualified in all the ways in which the same parts 
of speech occurring in the complete subject are qualified. 

An infinitive or a participle may receive all the qualifications that 
the predicate-verb can take. 

An infinitive or a participle, with or without qualifications, may 
constitute a predicate-nominative; as, "To see is to believe." 

Exercise. — Mention (1) the simple -predicate; i2) its qualifying words; 
(3) the modifiers of the qualifying words; and (4) the whole or complete 
predicate, in each of the following sentences: — 

Model 1. — "Falsehood aids no honest cause." 

In this sentence, the simple predicate or predicate-verb is aids. Its 
qualifying word is its object cause. The adjectives no and honest are the 
modifiers of the noun .cause. The whole or complete predicate is, aids no 



Model 2. — "The new heirs of time are always seeking to make improve- 
ments in the political and social habitations which they have inherited." 

In this sentence, the simple predicate or predicate-verb is are seeking. 
It is qualified by the adverb always, and the infinitive to make, which is itself 
qualified by its object, the noun improvements. Improvements is qualified 
by the phrase in political and social habitations, in which the noun habita- 
tions is qualified by the article the, and by the adjectives political and 
social (connected by and), and by the clause which they have inherited. The 



116 PHRASES. 

predicate-verb of this clause is have inherited, which is qualified by its 
object the relative which. 

The whole or complete predicate is are always seeking to make improve- 
ments in the political and social habitations which they have inherited. 

The thunder of the cannon shook the city. The elm is a noble tree. John 
Adams was the second president of the United States. Beware of covet ous- 
ness. The ground produced abundantly. The storm was upon us. We 
should have courage 1<> do rijdit. How many books did he purchase? True 
happiness always seeks some company. He bade all that were present 
remember his last words. Children who have no home rarely Income good 
citizens. The various fruit trees arc in their glory and wealth of beauty. 
It is delightful t<> Iran againsl their trunks and listen to the hum and watch 
the busy motions of the honey-gathering bees. 

Large was his bounty. Westward the course of empire takes its way. 
Withoul these three things — the prison, the school, and the hearth — so< i:.! 
order could not be maintained for a twelvemonth. They have left US an 
example already inscribed on the world's memory. No works of art can 
withstand the incessant strokes of time. Man should be ashamed to refuse 
to learn the lessons taugbl by the spider, the ant. and the bee. It will be 
the duty of the historian and the sage in all aires to let no occasion pass 
of commemorating the virtues of our illustrious Washington. 

PHRASES. 

Classification of Phrases. 

A phrase may !>•' named according to the part of speech 
to which its principal or leading word belongs, or accord- 
ing to ihf manner in which it qualifies. 

Phrases are named from their leading word, as follows: — 

1. The Prepositional Phrase; as, "He came with his father." 

L". The Infinitive Phrase; as, "The rain descend-. t,< water the earth." 

.;. I'll.- Participial Phrase; a-. "Being planted in good soil, the tree 

grew rapidly." 

Use of Phrases. 
A Phrase may I <• iiQpd: — 

1 . As an adjective; a-. " The top "/ the mountain is above die clouds. 

2.— As an adverb; a-, "The child played by the babbling brook." 

3. — As subject ; a-, " To m e the sun is pleasant." 



CLAUSES. 117 

4. — Absolutely; as, "The wind having died away, the sails flapped 
idly against the masts." 

5.— Independently; as, "0 long expected day! begin." 

Remarks. 

The independent phrase qualifies neither subject nor predicate. 
The other phrases may qualify either subject or predicate. 



CLAUSES. 
Classification of Clauses. 

A Clause may be named from its leading word. The 
following are the most important clauses: — 

1. — The Relative Clause, introduced by a relative pronoun; as, 
"He who runs may read." — "The wisdom which is from above, is 
first pure." 

2. — Adverbial Clause; as, "The tree lay where it fell." Here the 
clause is introduced by the conjunctive adverb where. 

3. — Conjunctional Clause; as, "Although the colonies declared their 
independence in 1776, our government did not take its present form 
until 1789." 

4. — Noun Clause; as, "That he wrote the book is certain." 

Use of Clauses. 
A Clause may be used: — 

1. — As a subject; as, "Who did it is not known." — "That all men 
are mortal needs no argument." 

2. — As Object; as, "I learned where he lived." — "The wise man 
knows that he is ignorant." 

3. — As Appositive; as, "The proverb, Wealth begets want, is not 
clear to all." 

When used as subject, object, or in apposition, clauses are used as 
nouns and are called noun clauses. 

4. — As Adjective modifier; as, "The man who toils will win." 



118 MODELS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

5. — As Adverbial modifier; as, "I waited until the hour had ex- 
pired." " The tree lay where it fell." 

Exercise. — Classify the phrases: and the clauses in the following sen- 
tences, and mention ichat they qualify: — 

Adrian built a wall from sea to sea, to restrain the incursions of the Picts 
and Scots. By private gratitude for public worth, this monument is raised. 
Woe to the city where faction reigns! The raven croaked as he sat in the 
gloom of the deepening twilight. Regardless of their doom, the little vic- 
tims play. Everybody knows thai authority is very much founded upon 
opinion. I wonder why he does not come. In ancient times the belief was 
that the earth is a flat circle. The time having arrived, t he orders were 
carried into effect. As the day dawned, the honors of their position became 
manifest. The duke gave command that no prisoners should be spared. 
Saving lighted his lantern, lie Uft the hut. the dog. by his barking, direct- 
ing the way. Almost at the end of the valley they found an humble inn. 
The chamber where the good man meets his fate, is privileged beyond the 
common walk of virtuous life. How beautiful are the feet of him that 
bringeth, that publisheth peace' The fad thai a robbery had been com- 
mitted in spite of all precautions, dismayed every one. 

Simple Sentences i -"Honesty produces confidence." 

This iB a sent) I 3 ", — declarative, because it is used, 

etc.; simple, because i1 contains, etc. Honesty is the subject, because it is 
that <.f which, etc.; produces confidence is the predicate, because it is that 
n hicb is asserted, etc. 

The -iihjeet i- simple, and i- also the Bubject-nominative. 

Produces is the predicate- verb; it is completed by its objed confidence. 
The complete predicate is produces confidence. 

■J. — "To -teal i- ba 

This i- a sent. nee. declarative, simple. To steal is the subject, and is base 

i- the prc.hr 

The Bubjecl is -imple. /.. steal, a verb in the infinitive mode, being used as 
the subject-nominative. 

The predicate i- complex; is is tin- predicate-verb; it is qualified by the 
adjective base, which describee the words used as the Bubject-nominative. 

A. — "The pun -t ..re i- produced from the hottest furnace " 

This i> a sentence, declarative, simple. 

The purest ..re is tin- BUbjeCt; is produced from the hottest jiirnnee is the 

predicate. 

The subject-nominative is '>r. . which is qualified by the article the, and 
bj the adjective p ■ 

The predicate- verb is it produced, which is qualified by the prepositional 
phrase, from the hottest furnace; in this phrase, the noun jurnaee is qualified 
l>y its adjuncts tht and hottest. 



MODELS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 119 

Complex Sentences. 1. — "The evil that men do, lives after them." 

This is a sentence; "A Sentence is, etc."; declarative, because it is used to 
affirm something; complex, because it contains, etc. 

The principal proposition is The evil lives after them; the qualifying 
clause is that men do; the clause is introduced by the relative that. 

In the principal proposition, the evil is the subject, and lives after them 
is the predicate. The subject-nominative is evil, which is qualified by the 
article the, and by the clause, that men do. 

The predicate-verb is lives, which is qualified by the phrase after 
them. 

In the clause, men is the subject, and do that is the predicate. The sub- 
ject is simple; do is the predicate-verb, which is completed by its object, 
the relative that. 

2. — "That crime deserves punishment needs only to be asserted, in order 
to be admitted." 

This is a sentence, declarative, complex. 

The noun clause, That crime deserves punishment, is used as the subject 
of the principal proposition. Needs only to be asserted, etc., constitutes the 
predicate. The connective is the conjunction that. 

Needs is the predicate-verb. It is qualified by the infinitive to be asserted, 
which is itself qualified by the adverb only, and by the prepositional phrase, 
in order to be admitted. In this phrase, order is qualified by the infinitive 
to be admitted. 

In the clause, crime is the subject, and deserves punishment is the 
predicate. 

The predicate- verb is deserves, which is completed by its object punish- 
ment. 

3. — "Whatever he undertook prospered." 

This is a sentence, declarative, complex, in which the compound relative 
whatever is equivalent to every thing which. 

The principal proposition is every thing (included in whatever) prospered; 
the clause is which (included in whatever) he undertook; the connective is 
the compound relative whatever. 

In the principal proposition, every thing is the subject, and prospered 
is the predicate; thing is the subject-nominative, which is qualified by the 
pronominal adjective every and the clause which he undertook. 

In the clause, he is the subject; undertook which is the predicate. The 
predicate-verb is undertook. It is completed by its object which. 

4. — "If we examine with minuteness the falling snow, we shall observe, 
if the air be very calm, that each flake consists of a number of exceedingly 
delicate particles of ice, which are united together with wonderful regularity." 

This is a sentence, declarative, complex. 

I. The principal proposition is We shall observe. 

II. The predicate, shall observe, is qualified by the clause, if we examine 
with minuteness the falling snow, connected by the conjunction if. 



120 GENERAL EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

III. Shall observe is also qualified by the clause, if the air be very calm, 
connected by another conjunction, if. 

IV. Shall observe is also completed by the clause, that each flake consists 
of a number of exceedingly delicate particles of ice, which is used as the object 
of the predicate-verb wUl observe. They are connected by the conjunction 
that. 

V. The last mentioned clause has one of the words in it, particles, quali- 
fied by the clause, which are luiitcd tegcther with wonderful regularity. 

Each of these clauses may be analyzed according to preceding models. 

Compound Sentences. 1.— "Art is founded upon science; and the 
former cannot exist, even in a rude state, without the latter." 

This is a sentence, declarative, compound. 

The first member is Art is founded upon science; the second is the former 
cannot exist, even in a rml> state, without the latter. They arc connected by 
tin- conjunction and. 

In tin- first member, art is tin- subject : is founded upon science is the pre- 
dicate. Tin- subject is simple, ami La also the subject-nominative; the 
predicate-verb is is founded, which is qualified by the prepositional phrase 
upon science. The complete predicate i- u founded upon science. 

In tin- Becond member, tin- subjeel i> the former; the predicate is cannot 
exist, even in a ruih state, without tin hittir. 

The Bubject-naminative is former (representing art), which is qualified 

by tin- article tin . 

Tin- predicate-verb is run exist, which is qualified by the adverb nut. by 
the prepositional phrase without tin latter, in which the is the qualifier of latter 
(rep resen ting science), and by the prepositional phrase, in a rude state. 
In thi- phrase a ami rudt are tin- modifiers of state, and even modifies rude. 

General Exercises in Analysis. 

The rounded bills dope gently t" 'he sea. Attention t,. business will pr<>- 
vide security againsl want To instrucl ■>ther~ i- beneficial t>> the mind. 
The villagers wen- all poor. Adams and Jefferson died on the same day, the 
fourth "f July, 1826 Ohl what riches |.,,\,- doth inherit' Thompson ami 
I ha. I a fortnight's holiday. Follow whither virtu.- hail- tine. Ohl wretch 
that I am' t.. what place shall I betake myself? Early in tin- morning I 
visited my trap- The wind ami tin- rain ha\e ceased. < >ne deed "f shame 
i- often succeeded bj years "i penitence. Times of general calamity have 
ever been productive of tin- greatest minds. 

What a piece of wurk i- man' Rome, republican Rome, whose eagles 

glanced in the rising and the setting Bun, where ami what is she? The 

darkness increasing, we l>«-he|il sparkles of sea-fire glittering through the 
gloom Beautiful, there, w ison with it- changes There is a 

divinity that Bbapes our ends If} involuntary <lr.-a.l <>f thunder had its 
origin in an incident which occurred when I was a boy of ten years. Strange, 



GENERAL EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 121 

that after a lapse of many years that occurrence should be so familiar to 
me. 

The characteristic peculiarity of the "Pilgrim's Progress" is, that it is the 
only work of its kind which possesses a strong human interest. Oh, my 
lord! must I then leave you? Earnestness, self-sacrifice, endurance, and 
benevolence, quicken and ennoble life. Daniel Boone, the pioneer of Ken- 
tucky, was born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in the month of February, 
1735. The stranger asked what building was burned last night. 

Christianity is the best foundation for good manners ; and of two persons 
having equal knowledge of the world, the one who is the better Christian will 
be the person of the best manners. 

Those evening bells! those evening bells'. 
How many a tale their music tells! 

The angel's face, 
As the great eye of heaven, shined bright, 
And made a sunshine in the shady place. 

By ceaseless action, all that is, subsists. The simplicity of his character 
inspired confidence, the ardor of his eloquence roused enthusiasm, and the 
gentleness of his manners invited friendship. I go to hear Rowland Hill 
because his ideas come red-hot from the heart. 

No man contemplates with greater tenderness than we do, the frailties of 
Dr. Johnson; none respects more the sound parts of his moral system, or 
admires more the vigor of the elephantine step with which he sometimes 
tramples down insolent error and presumptuous sophistry; but let no young 
man who wishes to learn to write well, study his style. 

Let the young aspirant after literary distinction who wishes to study a 
style which possesses the characteristic beauties of Addison's, its ease, sim- 
plicity, and elegance, with greater accuracy, point, and spirit, give his days 
and nights to the volumes of Irving. 

How sleep the brave who sink to rest, 
By all their country's wishes blest! 
When Spring, with dewy fingers cold, 
Returns to deck their hallowed mould, 
She there shall dress a sweeter sod 
Than Fancy's feet have ever trod. 

By fairy hands their knell is rung; 
By forms unseen their dirge is sung; 
There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray, 
To bless the turf that wraps their clay; 
And Freedom shall awhile repair, 
To dwell a weeping hermit there. 



122 SYNTHESIS. 

So live, that, when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan, which moves 
To that nwsterious realm, where each shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, 
Thou go not, like the quarry-slave at night. 
Scourged to his dungeon, but. sustained and soothed 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave 
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. 



SYNTHESIS. 



Synthesis is that division of Syntax which treats of the 
construction of sentences from words, according to prin- 
ciples called Rules of Syntax. 

In Syntax, words relate to others, -li>\\ relation between words, 
agree, govern, connect, depend, "i- are independent. 

1. A word relates to another, when it is used to describe thai word, 
or to limit or qualify it- meaning. 

Articles, adjectives, pronominal adjectives, and participles, relate 
principally to nouns or pronouns; and adverbs, to verbs, adjectives, or 
other advt rbs. 

2. A word shows relation, when it associates with some preceding 
word the idea expressed by the word which follow- it. 

Prepositions show the relation between nouns and pronouns princi 
pally and some preceding word. 

.;. \ (pord agrees with another, when the two words arc similar in 

one or more properties common to them. 

Persona] and relative pronouns, and verb-, agree principally with 
nouns or pronouns. 

I. A word governs another, when the former determines the form 

or ea>e of the latter. 

Verbs, participles, and prepositions, govern other winds, princi- 
pally nouns or pronouns. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 123 

5. A word connects, when it unites words in the same construction, 
or when it unites parts of a sentence, or sentences. 

Conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs connect. 

6. A word depends upon another, when the former is used to com- 
plete the sense or application of the latter. 

Verbs in the infinitive mode depend upon other words, principally 
upon verbs, adjectives, or nouns. 

7. A word is independent, when it has no grammatical connection 
with any other word. 

Interjections, certain adverbs, nouns, and sometimes other parts of 
speech, are independent. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

I. Subject of Finite Verb. — A noun or a pronoun 
which is the subject of a finite verb, is in the nominative 
case. 

II. Nominative Case Independent. — A noun or a 
pronoun whose case does not depend upon its connection 
with any other word, is in the nominative case independent. 

III. Possessive Case. — A noun or a pronoun which 
limits the word used as the name of the thing possessed, is 
in the possessive case. 

IV. Objective Case. — A noun or a pronoun which is the 
object of an action or of a relation, is in the objective case. 

V. Apposition. — A noun or a pronoun used in apposi- 
tion with another, is in the same case. 

VI. Same Case after Verb. — A noun or a pronoun 
placed after an intransitive verb, or a verb in the passive 
voice, and meaning the same person or thing as the noun 
or the pronoun preceding the verb, is in the same case. 

VII. Personal Pronouns. — A personal pronoun agrees 
with the noun which it represents, in number, person, and 
gender. 



124 RULE I.— SUBJECT OF FINITE VERB. 

VIII. Relative Pronouns. — A relative pronoun agrees 
with its antecedent in number, person, and gender. 

IX. Articles. — An article relates to the noun which 
it limits in meaning. 

X. Adjectives. — An adjective relates to the noun or 
the pronoun which it describes or limits. 

XI. — Pronominal Adjectives. — A pronominal adjec- 
tive relates to the noun which it limits, — or agrees with 
the noun which it represents, in number, person, and 
gender. 

XII. Agreement of Finite Verbs. — A finite verb 
agrees with its subject in Dumber and person. 

XIII. l\i imtiyks. -A verb in the infinitive mode 
depends upon the word which it limits or completes in 
meaning. 

XIV. PARTICIPLES. — A participle relates to the noun 
or the pronoun which it describes or limits. 

XV. Adverbs. — An adverb relates to the verb, the 
adjective, or the other adverb, which it qualifies. 

XVI. Prepositions. A preposition shows the relation 

between the noun or the pronoun which follows it, and 

some preceding word. 

XVII. Conjunctions. A conjunction connects words, 

the parts of a Sentence, or the sentences, between which 

it is placed. 

XVIII. [nTERJECTIONS. An interjection has no gram- 
matical dependence upon any other word. 

Rule I.— Subject of Finite Verb. 

A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite 
Verb, is in the nominative case. 



RULE I.— NOTES. 125 



1. The subject of a verb may be a verb in the infinitive mode, a 
part of a sentence, a sentence, or any word, used as a noun in the nomi- 
native case; as, "To sleep is refreshing." — "That the earth is round, 
was denied by the ancients." — "Them is often incorrectly used for 
those." — "'Never despair,' is a good motto." 

2. Several nouns, pronouns, infinitives, phrases, or clauses, may be 
subjects of the same verb; as, "Wealth, fame, and happiness, were 
his." — " To walk humbly, to deal justly, and to show mercy, are re- 
quired of all." 

3. Nouns in the first, or in the second person, are never the sub- 
jects of finite verbs. (Rule V., Note 1.) 

4. A noun and the pronoun representing it are sometimes improperly 
used as subjects of the same verb; as, "The sky it was obscured with 
clouds;" — omit it, and say, "The sky was obscured with clouds." 

5. Every nominative, except when used independently (Rule 2), 
or after the verb (Rule 6), or in apposition (Rule 5), is the subject of 
some verb mentioned or understood. 

6. The subject is generally placed before the verb; as, "They never 
fail who die in a good cause." 

The following instances are exceptions: — 

I. When a question is asked, without the use of an interrogative 
pronoun as the subject; as, "Where is he about whom you spoke?" 

II. When a verb in the imperative mode is used; as, "Depart (thou) 
in peace." 

III. When a verb in the subjunctive mode is used without a con- 
junction mentioned; as, "Were wisdom to be had for the wishing, all 
would be wise." 

IV. When a verb in the potential mode is used to express an earnest 
wish; as, "May peace and plenty abound within our borders." 

V. When the adverb there is used before the verb; as, "There is one 
thing that happeneth to all men." 

VI. When emphasis is used; as, "On rolled the tide of war." 

VII. When words quoted are introduced or separated by the verbs 
say, answer, reply, etc.; as, "'Truth,' said the soothsayer, 'can neither 
be bought nor sold.'" 

VIII. In poetry; as, "From peak to peak leaps the live thunder." 



126 RULE I.— EXERCISES. 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model 1. — "Him who expects to succeed in life, must be industrious." 
This sentence is incorrect, because htm, which is a pronoun in the objective 
case, is used as the subject of the finite verb must be; but, according to 
Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, etc." 
Therefore him should be he, unci the sentence should be, "He who expects to 
succeed in life, must be industrious." 

2. — "The moon it shed its pah- beams o'er the landscape." 
This sentence is incorrect, because moon and the pronoun it, which repre- 
sents it. an- used as subjects of the same verb: but, according to Note under 
Rule I., "A noun and the pronoun, etc." Therefore it should be omitted, and 
bi ace ghould be, "The moon shed her pale beams o'er the landscape." 
1. Him wln> was once bo cheerful is now quite depressed. 2. Happy is 
him alone who depends n<>t upon the pleasures of this world for his enjoy- 
ment. 3. Hiir teachers said that she and me were seldom disobedient. 4. 

Whom do you think did the mi-chic f? Him, certainly. ">. Them, and them 
only who are virtut us, can deserve respect. 6. The boat was pushed off 

from the brink, and him and his dog were left alone in the forest. 7. How 
much older an- you than US? S. When the ship struck, us sailors took to 

the long-boat, and the veea 1 began to fill immediately. 9. 1 love them that 

love inc. and them that seek me early shall find me. 10. " Point out the 
man." said the judge, "whom you Bay committed the robbery. " 

Bjuebcibi II /'•■' i the wbjeets in the following sentences: — 

Model l "Huge icebergs surrounded the vessel 

Iceberg Icebergs aurrowided.- -"Icebergs" is a common noun, in the 

plural number, third person, and of the neuter gender; it i- in the nomi- 

,-.-. being the subject of the finite verb surrounded, according to 

Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun which i- the subject of a finite \<rl>. is in the 

nominative i 

j 'To study i pl< asanl 

Toetudy To stud; i rtudy" is an intransitive verb, regular (pres. 

ttudy, ! " '" tne infinitive mode, present 

tense, it i- used Bfl a noun in the singular numlx r. third person, and of the 

neuter gender;— in the nominative case, l>- ing the subjed of the finite verb 

under Rule I . "The Bubject of a verb may be, etc." 

l. Old men go to Death, but Death comes to young men. 2, Politeness 

and respect will secure friends, 3. To know our ignorance is the height of 

wisdom, i Many men seem great, only because th< h are little. 

r,. To avoid the error- of the foolish requires constant watchfulm 

Thus passed from it- tenement of day a soul fitted for the company of 

angels. 7. The horse mocketb at fear and is not affrighted. 8. Will in- 

bring its reward? 9. The great ones ,.f the earth might 

learn many a lesson from the little. l<». "While there is Life there i- hope," 

cried he. 



RULE II.— NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 127 

Rule II. — Nominative Case Independent. 

A noun or a pronoun whose case does not depend upon 
its connection with any other word, is in the nominative 
case independent. 

NOTES. 

1. A noun or a pronoun may be in the nominative case independent 
under five circumstances; — 

1. When it represents a person or a thing addressed; as, "My son, 
attend unto my words." — "O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, 
where is thy victory?" 

This is called the nominative independent by address. 
II. — When it is used in exclamation; as, "Oh! the happy days of 
childhood!" — "Home! how sweet the sound!" 

This is called the nominative independent by exclamation. 

III. When by pleonasm it is mentioned to introduce a thought, 
and the pronoun representing it is the subject or the object of the verb; 
as, "He that hath ears to hear, let him hear." — "The storm has spent 
its rage, but that gallant bark — where is she?" 

This is called the nominative independent by pleonasm. 

IV. When it follows the infinitive mode or the participle of an in- 
transitive verb, or the infinitive mode or the participle of a verb in the 
passive voice; as, "To be a good man is not easy." — "To be called a 
Christian was, in former times, considered a disgrace." — "His being 
called a villain did not make him one." 

In such instances the infinitive phrase or the participial phrase is used 
as a noun. 

This is called the nominative independent after the infinitive or the 
participle. 

V. When it is placed before a participle relating to it; as, "This 
army being defeated, all hostilities ceased." 

This is called the nominative independent before a participle. 

2. The nominative independent and its participle are equivalent in 
meaning to a clause beginning with when, while, since, etc., in which 
the participle is changed to a finite verb, and the noun or the pronoun 
becomes its subject: thus, "All the members having arrived, business 
was commenced," means, "When all the members had arrived, etc." 



128 RULE II.— EXERCISES. 

3. The noun or the pronoun which is used independently before a 
participle is sometimes omitted; as, "Considering the difficulties, it is 
surprising that they succeeded;" that is, "7, we, or persons consider- 
ing, etc." 

4. The participle in independent constructions is frequently omitted; 
as, "Their work over, the party retired;" that is, "Their work being 
over, etc." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model 1. — "O thee, who art with glory and majesty crowned!" 

This sentence is incorrect, because thee, which is a pronoun in the objec- 
tive case-, i> used to represent the name of a person addressed; but, accord- 
ing to Note under Rule II., A noun or a pronoun used to represent a person 
or a thing addressed, is in the nominative case independent. Therefore 
Dm Bhould !»• thiiu. and the sentence should be, "O thou, who art with 
glory and majesty crowned!" 

2. — "Him having overthrown the enemies of his country, peace was 
restored." 

This sentence is incorrect, because Him, which is a pronoun in the objec- 
tive case, is used independently before the participle having overthrown; 
hut, according t" Note under Rule II., A noun >>r a pronoun placed ln-fore 
a participle relating t<> it. is in the nominative case independent. There- 
fore him should 1h- ht . and the sentence should be, " He having overthrown 

the eneinii s of his country, peace was restored." 

1. <) happy them who had Buch blessings bestowed upon them I 2. Him, 
whom all respected, having committed the act, great surprise was felt. •'*. 
(> miserable him, who had thus squandered the precious years of tnan- 

h I l Him having enlarged his mind by study, are not his pleasures 

i I? .">. There was no one to Burround him with good influences, 

her being dead. 6. Thee alone remaining of all thai then met, the uncer- 
tainty of life is shown. 7. Your refusing t«> grant my desires, I will with- 
draw my claim. B. Them alone excepted, the Jews were the most learned 
of the ancii 

ExEBCtai II Porw the word- used independently in the following 
entem i 

Modei i -"Begone, dull Carol Thou and 1 can never agree." 

Cur. -Care" has no grammatical connection. "Care" is a proper noun, 
in the singular number, second person, and <>f the masculine gender (by 
personification); it >^ in the nominative case independent by address, 
according to Huh- II , •■ \ noun or a pronoun, etc." 

ih e Mauls being conquered, Ccesar returned in triumph to 
Rome 

Oauh "Mauls" has no grammatical connection. "Gauls" is a proper 



RULE III.— POSSESSIVE CASE— NOTES. 129 

noun, in the plural number, third person, and of the masculine gender; it is 
in the nominative case independent before the participle being conquered, 
according to Rule II., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

3. — "To become an independent nation cost the colonists a long and 
bloody war." 

Nation. — "Nation" has no grammatical connection. "Nation" is a col- 
lective noun, in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender; 
it is in the nominative case independent after the infinitive to become, ac- 
cording to Rule II., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

1. Darest thou, Cassius, now leap with me into this angry flood? 2. O 
liberty! liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name! 3. To 
become a painter was the height of his ambition. 4. The sun shining from 
an unclouded sky, all nature was clothed in beauty. 5. Delightful task! to 
rear the tender thought. 6. Angels and ministers of grace, defend us! 7. 
Beautiful Venice! pride of the sea! 8. The brave commander of the expe- 
dition being killed, the fleet was obliged to surrender. 9. Romans, country- 
men, and lovers; hear me for my cause. 10. Go, soul, the body's guest, 
upon a thankless errand. 

O bosom, black as death! 
O lim£d soul: that struggling to be free, 
Art only more engaged. Help, Angels, make assay! 
Bow stubborn knees ! and heart with strings of steel, 
Be soft as sinews of the new-born babe. 



Rule III. — Possessive Case. 

A noun or a pronoun which limits the word used as the 
name of the thing possessed, is in the possessive case. 



1. In the use of nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, the 
proper forms should always be written; as, The boy's hat; the ladies' 
dresses; — "This book was hers." 

2. A noun or a pronoun in the possessive is usually placed imme- 
diately before the noun denoting the thing possessed; except when 
an adjective which describes or limits the same noun is placed between 
the noun and the possessive; as, "The company's vessel was lost." — 
"The company's largest vessel was lost." 

3. The possessive and the word limited by it are sometimes con- 
nected by a hyphen and thus form a compound word; as, A camel' s-hair 
brush. 



130 RULE III.—XOTES. 

A permanent compound word is sometimes formed from the pos- 
sessive and the word limited by it, by omitting both the hyphen and 
the sign of the possessive; as, Goatskin, for goafs skin. 

The possessive and the word limited by it, and the compounds 
formed from them, do not always have the same meaning: thus, cat- 
head (a part of a vessel), cat's-hcad (a plant), and a cat's head, express 
quite different ideas. 

4. The idea expressed by the possessive may also be denoted by 
the preposition of, followed by the objective: thus, "The sun's rays," 
means "The rays of the sun." 

These two modes of expression, however, do not always mean the 
same thing; thus, "The queen's picture" means a picture belonging to 
In r; but, "A picture "/ the queen" does not denote possession; it means 
simply a jinrtrnit nj lur. 

5. The word limited by the possessive may be omitted when its 
use is ool required to complete t!i«' sense; as, "He bought the goods 

;it .S7- irnrt's ston 

6. The noun omitted after the possessive following <>/, is the same 
as the noun which precedes of, and is always in the plural number; 

rhis is a painting of Wests (painting 

7. in the use of complex nouns the sign of the possessive is suf- 
fixed to tin- iasl word of the complex name; as, "Washington Irving'* 
'Life of Columbus' Bhould !«• in every library." 

Some body else's, some one else's, etc., are treated as complex 
noun 1 ;. 

When the Iasl word of ;i complex name or title is in the objective 
case, it is preferable t>> expre ss the idea of possession by a preposition 
and it> object: thus, instead of '"I'll.- /'.</» <•] Rome's temporal power," 
say, "The temporal power <</ the /'<«/» of Rome." 

8. I'll'- use of M\«ral successive nouns in the possessive case should 
be avoided, an. I the idea of possession expressed by prepositions and 
their objects: thus, "The king's favorite's servant? s horse was slain," 
should !»-. "The horse belonging t<< tin servant <>/ the king's favorite 

wa-- slain." 

'.I. When two or more nouns in the possessive are connected, anil 

denote joint owners of the sarm thing, the sign of the possessive is 
suffixed to the last noun only; as, William and Mary's reign; William, 
John, and James's teacher. 



RULE III.— NOTES— EXERCISES. 131 

When one or more of the nouns connected in the possessive are 
used for the sake of emphasis, the sign of the possessive is suffixed 
to each; as, "It was Charles's, not Mary's fault." — "Henry's, which 
was also partly Howard's book, was lost." 

When two or more nouns in the possessive are connected, and denote 
separate owners of different things, the sign of the possessive is suffixed 
to each noun; as, "Taylor's and Santa Anna's forces were unequal in 
numbers." 

10. When a noun in the possessive has one or more nouns in apposi- 
tion (Rule V., Note 5) with it, the sign should be suffixed to that which 
immediately precedes the noun, mentioned or understood, which is 
limited by the possessive; as, Paul the Apostle's letter; At Smith's, the 
watchmaker and jeweler. 

11. When an intervening clause is used to explain a noun in the 
possessive, the idea of possession should be denoted by a preposition 
and its object, with the explanatory clause following: thus, "She praised 
the peasant's, as he was called, good breeding," should be, "She praised 
the good breeding of the peasant, as he was called." 

12. When a noun in the possessive case is put in apposition with a 
pronoun in the possessive, the sign may be omitted; as, "Such was 
his wisdom, the foremost man of all his age." — "His reputation as a 
lawgiver has descended even to our times." (Rule V., Note 6.) 

13. The possessive may limit a participial noun; as, "The head 
and front of my offending hath this extent." — "The boy's playing was 
admired by all." 

14. The possessive may limit a participle used as a noun, which, 
at the same time, retains the nature of a participle; as, "His having a 
ticket insured his admission." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model 1. — "'Ladies Cabin' was painted above the door." 
This expression is incorrect, because ladies, which is intended for the pos- 
sessive plural, has not the proper form ; but, according to Note under Rule 
III., "In the use of nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, etc." There- 
fore ladies should be ladies', and the expression should be, '"Ladies' Cabin' 
was painted above the door." 

2. "The thief restored neither Brown nor Smith's goods." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the sign of the possessive is not suf- 
fixed to the noun Brown, which is one of two nouns connected in the pos- 



132 EXERCISES—RULE IV.— OBJECTIVE CASE. 

sessive; but, according to Note under Rule III., "When two or more nouns 
in the possessive are connected, and denote separate owners of different 
things, etc." Therefore Brown should be Brown's, and the sentence should 
be, "The thief restored neither Brown's nor Smith's goods." 

1. William's H. Prescott's "Conquest of Peru" is a veiy interesting 
work. 2. The fire destroyed Pierce's, Taylor's, and Clay's store. 3. The 
volume was printed at Johnsons', the publishers' and booksellers'. 4. 
Tennyson's, once poet-laureate of England, fame will live through coming 
ages. 5. Napoleon and Wellington's armies deserved such commanders. 
6. The mistake was the general, not the soldiers'. 7. The commodore's 
vessel's masts were shot away. 8. The Protector's picture was an exact 
resemblance of his features. 9. Xo means remained to prevent him escap- 
ing. 10. Men and women's shoes are made here. 

Exercise II. — Parse the possessives in the following sentences: — 
Model 1. — "Preadenl Harrison's death occurred April 4, 1841." 
President Harrison's. — President Harrison's death. — "Presidenl Harri- 
son'-" i- a complex proper noun, in the singular number, third person, 

and of the lnaseul'me gender; it is in the possessive case, and limits the 

noun death, according to Rule 111.. "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive 

Case limits the word used a- the name of the tiling possessed." 

2. — '"The Deliverance of Leyden' is a painting of Wittkamp's." 

11' ittkamp's. Wittkamp's (paintings) . — "Wittkamp's" i> a proper noun, 
in the singular number, third person, and of the masculine gender; it is in 
the' possessive Case, and limits the noun paintings, understood, according 
to Rule 111.. "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

l. (>rder i- Heaven's Brsl law. 2. < >ne fire hums out another's burning. 
:'.. Queen Ann.'- reign has been called the Augustan aire of English litera- 
ture. 1. The French emperor's well-known and often-tried powers of 
endurance were astonishing. •">. Man's reasoning faculties an' given to him 
for a noble purpose. 6. In our travels we Btopped at Wordsworth's, (he 

poet. 7. Alter life's fitful fever he sleeps well. S. Tlie Roundheads' and 

tin' Parliament's forces were soon engaged. '.». An atheist's laugh's a poor 

exchange for Deity offended. 10. The bes1 portion of a « 1 man's life 

is hi- little, unremembered act- of kindness and of love. 



Rule IV. — Objective Case. 

A noun or n pronoun which is tin- object of an action or 
of ;i relation, is in tire objective fast-. 

Action refer- in ill.' action asserted by a transitive verb in the active 
vniee, and relation t<> the relation denoted by a preposition. 



RULE IV.— NOTES. 133 



1. A noun or a pronoun can be the object of an action asserted 
only by a transitive verb in the active voice, or by an intransitive verb 
used transitively; as, "Strive to perform your duties, and your friends 
will reaped you." — "The peasant lived a life of toil." 

A verb may have several objects connected by one or more con- 
junctions; as, "He shall no more behold wife, friends, or children." 

2. A noun or a pronoun may also be the object of an action expressed 
by the participle of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of an intran- 
sitive verb used transitively; as, "A lake was seen reflecting the rays of 
the sun." 

3. The object of a verb or of a participle may be a phrase, a clause, 
or a sentence,— used as a noun; as, "The colonists determined to resist 
the Stamp Act."— 1 ' Galileo proved that the earth is round"— "Take 
' Touch not, taste not, handle not,' for your motto." 

4. A preposition should never be placed between a verb and the 
object of the action asserted by the verb: thus, "The family did not 
appear to want for any thing," should be, "The family did not appear 
to want any thing." 

5. A verb in the passive voice should never be used to govern an 
objective case, because, in this voice, the object of the action asserted 
by the verb is the subject of the verb: thus, "He was offered a foreign 
appointment," should be, "A foreign appointment was offered to him." 

6. An intransitive verb, or the participle of an intransitive verb, 
should not be used to govern the objective case: thus, "I will sit me 
down to rest," should be, "I will sit down to rest." 

7. Transitive verbs of choosing, naming, etc., seem to have two 
objects not connected by a conjunction; as, "He called his son, Thomas." 

In such instances the latter noun is in apposition with the noun 
or the pronoun preceding, which is the real object. (Rule V., Note 7.) 

The omission of a preposition, usually to, for, or of, gives a verb 
the appearance of governing two objectives: "He asked me a ques- 
tion," means, "He asked of me a question." — "I bought him a book," 
means, "I bought a book for him." 

When the object of the action asserted by the verb precedes the 
other object, the preposition is mentioned; as, "He taught the alphabet 
to him." 



134 RULE IV.— NOTES— EXERCISES. 

A verb, therefore, never governs two objects, unless they are con- 
nected by a conjunction mentioned or understood. 

8. Some nouns seem to be used without any governing word: thus, 
"He traveled several miles before he overtook the party." 

In such instances the objective seems to have somewhat the force 
of an adverb; but it is better to supply a preposition than to call the 
expression an adverb or an adverbial objective. 

9. A noun or a pronoun is sometimes the object of the relation de- 
noted by two or more prepositions; or of a preposition and a transitive 
verb; as, "He went into and passed through the house." — "The general 
pro posed, and afterwards determined upon, his plans of operations." 

In all such expressions the object should be placed after the first 
verb or preposition, and each of the others should be followed by a 
pronoun representing the object; as, "He went into the house and 
passed through it." — "The general proposed his plans of operations, 
and afterwards determined upon thou." 

10. The object of an action or of a relation is generally placed after 
the verb or the preposition by which it is governed; as, "I love to hear 
a hearty laugh above all other sounds;" — except when used for the 
sake of emphasis; as, "Win, whom I ran not trust, I can not respect." 

11. The object should never be separated from the verb by an ex- 
planatory phrase or clause: thus, "lie assisted, an act deserving much 
praise, the poor people who asked his aid," should be, "He assisted 
the poor people who asked his aid, an act, etc." 

12. When the object of an action is a relative or an interrogative, 
it may precede the verb, or both the verb and the subject; as, "Whom 
did the government appoint to the command?" 

13. The relative that always precedes the verb or the preposition 
by which it is governed; as, "lie is the best man that I know." — "Who 
that we can appeal to, will decide differently?" 

1 1. Whom and which are sometimes placed before the preposition 
by which they are governed,- but inelegantly: thus, "Whom did you 
speak Id.'" should lie. "To whom did you speak?" They usually pre- 
cede the verb; a--, "The picture which I saw." 

Exbbcxsi I — Correct (lie following sentences, and apply (he rule or 
the note fur each correction: — 

Model 1 — "They who become ureal through their own merit, the world 
will commend." 



RULE IV.— EXERCISES. 135 

This sentence is incorrect, because the pronoun they, which is in the 
nominative case, is used as the object of the action asserted by commend, a 
transitive verb in the active voice; but, according to Rule IV., "A noun or 
a pronoun, etc." Therefore they should be them, and the sentence should 
be, "Them who become great through their own merits, the world will 
commend." 

2. "He was offered a seat in the president's cabinet." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the noun seat is used as the object 
of was offered, a verb in the passive voice; but, according to Note under 
Rule IV., "A verb in the passive voice should never be used, etc." There- 
fore, the sentence should be, "A seat in the president's cabinet was offered 
to him." 

3. — "Who did you ask for?" 

This sentence is incorrect, because the relative who, which is in the nomi- 
native case, is used as the object of the relation denoted by the preposition 
/or; but, according to Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc."; therefore who 
should be whom. The sentence is also incorrect (or inelegant), because the 
preposition for is placed after the word which it governs ; but by Note under 
Rule IV., "The object of an action or of a relation is generally placed, etc." 
Therefore the sentence should be, "For whom did you ask?" 

1. Who did you accompany in your journey across the prairies? 2. He 
was presented the highest prize as a reward for his proficiency in Latin. 3. 
The traveler being weary sat himself down by the road-side to rest. 4. The 
boy's parents resolved not to permit of such conduct. 5. It is our duty to 
feel for, and to assist, those in want. 6. Who did you desire to purchase the 
book? he or I? 7. The Indians have been deprived of, and driven from, 
their former hunting-grounds. 8. Who, were I righteous, yet would I 
not answer. 9. Thou, who I am proud to include among my friends, I will 
always respect. 10. He to whom much is given, much will be required of. 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouns and the pronouns in the objective case 
in the following sentences: — 

Model. — "Cast thy bread upon the waters." 

Bread. — Cast bread. — "Bread" is a common noun, in the singular num- 
ber, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the objective case, 
being the object of the action asserted by the verb cast, according to Rule 
IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

Waters. — Upon waters. — "Waters" is a common noun, in the plural 
number, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the objective case, 
being the object of the relation denoted by the preposition upon, accord- 
ing to Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

1. Keep company with good men and you will increase the number. 2. 
As circumstances alter cases, so time and chance alter circumstances. 3. 
The pride of science is humble, when compared with the pride of ignor- 
ance. 4. The caravan traveled many miles without finding water. 5. 
Youth can be moulded into any shape, at pleasure, like soft clay. 6. A 



136 RULE V.— APPOSITION— NOTES. 

continual dropping of water hollows out a stone. 7. Riches certainty 
make themselves wings. 8. The bell strikes one. We take no note of 
time but from its loss. 9. Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, 
and be wise. 10. Happj' are we, if we make God's law the rule of our life. 

Rule V. — Apposition. 

A noun or a pronoun used in apposition with another, is 
in the same case. 



1. A noun or a pronoun is used in apposition, when it is used with 
another noun or pronoun to explain it, or when it is added or repeated 
for the sake of emphasis; as, "Franklin, the philosopher, will ever be 
remembered." — "Spring, joyous spring, has come." — "We, the people 
of the United States." 

2. The proper name and the common name of an object are often 
used together, the common name being in apposition with the proper. 
They may, however, be parsed together as a complex proper noun; as, 
" The steamer Atlantic has arrived." "The city of London is on the 
river Thames" 

Although one of the words forming a complex proper noun is the 
principal word, and the other or others are in apposition with it, yet 
they should be parsed together as one word: thus, in the sentence, 
"Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor in L852," Louis is the 
principal noun, and Napoleon and Bonaparte are in apposition with 
it, but all should lie parsed as one complex noun. 

A title prefixed to a proper name is in apposition with it, hut the 
two should be parsed together as one word: thus, in the sentence, 
"Senator KnOX opposed the measure," Senator is put in apposition 
with Knox, hut they should be parsed as one complex noun. 

.'}. A noun may sometimes he parsed as being in apposition with 
the whole or a part of a sentence; as, "The British Parliament claimed 
the right to tax tin- Americans without tlnir consent, a principle which 
the colonists opposed." Strictly, principle is in apposition with right. 

I. As is often followed by a noun denoting office, employment, 
etc., which is used in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun; 
as, "Hancock's abilities as ;1 general, caused him to be feared by his 
enemies." 



RULE V.— NOTES— EXERCISES. 137 

The word following as is not always in apposition with the pre- 
ceding noun or pronoun, but is sometimes the subject or the object 
of a verb understood: thus, "He valued his character as his life," means, 
"He valued his character as he valued his life." 

When the noun in apposition is an equivalent as well as an explana- 
tory term, it is sometimes introduced by the conjunction or; as, "The 
puma, or American lion, is found in Brazil." 

5. When a noun in the possessive case is in apposition with another 
in the same case, the sign is usually suffixed only to that noun which 
immediately precedes that limited by the possessive; as, "'Death on 
the Pale Horse' is one of the best of the artist West's paintings." 

6. A noun may sometimes be in apposition with a pronoun in the 
possessive; in such instances the sign of the possessive is omitted; as, 
"Irving's 'Life of Washington' is his best work as an author." 

7. Transitive verbs of choosing, naming, etc., are sometimes fol- 
lowed in the active voice by two objectives, the first of which is the 
object of the action asserted by the verb, and the other is used in appo- 
sition with it; as, "The English government appointed Wellington 
commander of their forces in Spain." 

8. A plural term used for emphasis is sometimes used in apposition 
with the particulars which it represents; as, "Happiness, honor, wealth, 
all were lost." 

9. A distributive word, or several particulars, are sometimes used 
to explain a general term, and are used in apposition with it: thus, 
"They disputed every one with his neighbor." — "The inhabitants, 
men, women, and children, rallied to the defence of the city." 

10. In the expression, "They love each other," each is in apposition 
with they, the meaning being, " They, each, love the other." 

Also in the sentence, "They love one another," one is in apposition 
with they, the meaning being, "They, one, love the other." 

11. Words in apposition must agree in case, but not necessarily in 
number, person, or gender; as, "We, the people of the United States.'' 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model. — "The insult was offered to my friend, he whom I loved as a 
brother." 

This sentence is incorrect, because he, which is a pronoun in the nomi- 
native case, is used in apposition with the noun friend, which is in the 
objective case, being the object of the relation denoted by the preposition 



138 RULE V.— EXERCISES. 

to; but, according to Rule V., "A noun or a pronoun used in apposition 
with another, is in the same case." Therefore, he should be him, and the 
sentence should be, "The insult was offered to my friend, him whom 1 
loved as a brother." 

1. The purchased articles were left at Bailey's, the jeweler's. 2. My 
friend, him who you heard lecture, has left the city. 3. Richard the Lion- 
hearted found the government of England in John's, his brother's hands. 
4. The man, him who the officer punished, threatened revenge. 5. Such 
conduct to your friend, he who has done so much to aid you, is ungrate- 
ful. 6. Help the poor, disabled soldiers, they who so much need assist- 
ance. 7. Milton the poet lived during Cromwell's the Protector's adminis- 
tration. 8. The dress-maker, her whom you recommended, has disappointed 
me. 9. The minstrel came, him who the earl invited. 10. I went to see my 
cousin Charles, he who has been sick so long. 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouns and the pronouns in apposition in the 
following sentences : — 

Model 1. — "Washington appointed John Jay Chief Justice." 

Chief Justice. — John Jay Chief Justice. — "Chief Justice" is a complex 
proper noun, in the singular number, third person, and of the masculine 
gender; it is in the objective case, being put in apposition with the noun 
John Jay which is the object of the action asserted by the verb appointed; 
according to Rule V., "A noun or a pronoun, etc" 

2. — "General, captain, private, all wire hurried into the same grave." 

.1//. — (I'cmral, captain, primtc, all. — "All" is a pronominal adjective, 
representing the nouns, general, captain, and primtc. in the plural number, 
third person, and masculine gender; it is in the nominative case, being used 
in apposition with general, captain, and private, which are the subjects of the 
finite verb were hurried, according to Note under Rule V., "A plural term 
used for emphasis i- sometimes used, etc."; and Rule V., "A noun etc." 

l. How wonderful is Death ' Death and his brother Sleep. 2. When our 
actions do not, our fear- make us traitors. 3. Shakspearc calls the world 
8 Stage, and men and women players. 4. The city, cannon, stores, every 
tiling fell into the hands of the victorious army. 5. Athens, once the eye 
of ( ireeoe, mother of arts and eloquence, lay before us. 

6. The labors of Hamilton as a statesman were invaluable. 7. Washing- 
ton resigned all the power which his position as commander-in-chief gaVC 
him, and retired to private life: an act which will always be admired. S. 
Decatur destroyed the frigate Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli. 9 

The sea. the sea. the open sea' tin- blue, the fresh, the ever free! 10. The 
walrus, or sea-horse, is found in the Arctic regions. 

20. o Caledonia! stern and wild. 

Meet nurse for a poet io chilil ! 

Land of brown heath and shaggy wood; 

Land of the mtain and the flood! 



RULE VI.— SAME CASE AFTER VERB— NOTES. 139 

Rule VI. — Same Case After Verb. 

A noun or a pronoun placed after an intransitive verb, 
or a verb in the passive voice, and meaning the same per- 
son or thing as the noun or the pronoun preceding the verb, 
is in the same case. 



1. A noun or a pronoun is after or before a verb or a participle when 
it follows or precedes the verb or the participle in the natural order of 
thought or expression. 

2. The verbs which most frequently separate nouns and pronouns 
meaning the same person or thing are be, become, appear, grow, etc.; 
intransitive verbs denoting motion, place, position, etc.; and the verbs 
call, choose, consider, make, etc., in the passive voice. 

3. A noun or a pronoun may agree in case with a phrase, a clause, 
or a sentence, placed before a verb and meaning the same person or 
thing; as, "To love our neighbor as ourselves is a divine command." 

The expression following the verb or the participle may be a phrase, 
a clause, or a sentence; as, "It is difficult to be always consistent." 

4. If the conjunction that is used to connect a finite intransitive 
verb with a transitive verb preceding, the noun or the pronoun follow- 
ing the intransitive verb is in the nominative case; as, "The man sup- 
posed (that) it was he that came last." 

When the intransitive verb is in the infinitive mode and follows a 
transitive verb which has an object mentioned, the noun or the pro- 
noun following the intransitive verb is in the objective case; as, "The 
man supposed it to be him that came last." 

5. The noun or the pronoun following an intransitive or a passive 
participle which is limited by the possessive case of a noun or a pro- 
noun placed before it, is in the nominative case independent; as, "The 
fact of its being he, need not alter your opinion." 

Although this mode of expression is used by the best writers, it 
seems preferable to avoid it when possible: thus, "The fact that it is he, 
need not alter your opinion." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model, 1. — "No one doubted that it was him who deserved the prize." 



140 EXERCISES— RULE VII.— PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

This sentence is incorrect, because him is a personal pronoun in the 
objective case, referring to the same person as it, which is in the nominative 
case, being the subject of the finite verb was; but, according to Rule VI., 
"A noun or a pronoun placed after an intransitive verb, etc." Therefore 
him should be he, and the sentence should be, "No one doubted that it was 
he who deserved the prize." 

2. — "No one doubted it to be he that deserved the prize." 

This sentence is incorrect, because he is a personal pronoun in the nomi- 
native case, referring to the same person as it, which is in the objective case, 
being the object of the action asserted by the verb doubted; but, according to 
Rule VL, "A noun or a pronoun, etc." Therefore he should be him, and the 
sentence should be, "No one doubted it to be him that deserved the prize." 

1. It seemed impossible to be him that committed the act. 2. It appears 
difficult to determine whom it was, that first discovered the power of steam. 
3. Who do you suppose him to be? 4. If I were him or her, I would improve 
the opportunities presented to me. 5. It matters not whom your associates 
may be, their influence has its effect upon you. 6. The court had no doubt 
of its being them who were guilty. 7. The visitor was not the man whom 
he seemed to be. 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouns and the pronouns in the same case after 
the verb in the following sentences: — 

MODEL. — "A man's house is his castle." 

Castle. — House is castle. — "Castle" Is a common noun, in the singular 
number, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the nominative case 
after the intransitive verb *S, because it denotes the same thins as the pre- 
ceding noun house, which La in tin- nominative case, being the subject of 
the finite verb is, according to Rule VI., "A noun or a pronoun placed 
after an intransitive verb, etc." 

1. Beauty is truth, and truth beauty. '-. Every man is the architect 
of his own fortune. :'•. From this battle the Romans retired victors. 4. 
He blesses his stars, and thinks it luxury. ">. Brevity is the soul of wit. 
6. Men are but ehildn n of a larger growth. ~. A sorrow's crown of sorrow 
is remembering happier things, s. To conceal art is the perfection of art. 
9. Our birth is nothing but our death begun. 10. Prayer should be the 
key of the day and the lock of the night. 

20. All nature is but art. unknown t<> thee: 

All chance, direction, which thou canst not see; 

All discord, harmony not understood; 

All partial evil, universal good. 

Rule VII. — Personal Pronouns. 
A personal pronoun agrees with the noun which it repre- 
sents, in Dumber, person, ami gender. 



RULE VII. —NOTES. 141 



1. The following are exceptions: — 

1. We, which is a pronoun in the plural number, is sometimes used 
by authors, editors, reviewers, etc., to represent a noun in the singular. 

II. You, etc., which are in the plural number, are generally used 
instead of thou, etc., to represent nouns in the singular; as, "Charles, 
have you completed your task?" 

III. It, which is of the neuter gender, is often used instead of he or 
she to represent the names of infants, animals, etc.; as, "The child had 
not yet recovered from its fright." 

IV. He or she is used instead of it, to represent the name of a thing 
without sex, which has been personified; as, "Pleasure deludes her fol- 
lowers with many a flattering promise." 

V. It, used indefinitely. (See Note 11.) 

2. When the objects composing the unit denoted by a collective 
noun are considered collectively, the noun should be represented by a 
pronoun in the singular number, and of the neuter gender; as, "Con- 
gress holds its meetings in the capital of the United States." 

When the objects composing the unit denoted by a collective noun 
are considered separately, the noun should be represented by a pro- 
noun in the plural number, and of the gender corresponding to the 
sex of the individuals that form the collection; as, "The party were 
quarreling among themselves at the time of their capture." 

The collectives many, few, dozen, score, etc., preceded by a, are repre- 
sented by pronouns in the plural; as, "A great many lost their lives in 
their attempts to capture the fort, but a few effected their entrance." 

3. A pronoun which represents two or more nouns taken together 
and connected by and, should be in the plural number; as, "Generals 
Lee and Jackson united their armies to make the attack." 

If a pronoun represents two or more nouns in the singular, con- 
nected by and and expressing only one person or thing, the pronoun 
should be in the singular; as, "The celebrated painter and artist died 
before he reached Rome." 

If two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and, are pre- 
ceded by each, every, no, or a similar distributive, they are considered 
separately, and are represented by a pronoun in the singular; as, "Every 
act, every word, every thought, has its effect upon our character." 



142 RULE VII.— NOTES. 

If two or more nouns are connected by as well as, but not, and also, 
etc., they belong to different propositions, and a pronoun is used to 
represent the first noun only; as, "James, as well as his brothers, was 
there, for I saw him." 

4. A pronoun which represents two or more nouns in the singular 
connected by or or nor, should be in the singular; as, "Either James 
or William has failed to do his duty." 

If one of the nouns connected by or or nor is in the plural, the pro- 
noun representing them should be plural; and the plural noun should 
be placed nearest to the pronoun; as, "Neither the captain nor his 
men were aware of their danger." 

5. A noun in the singular preceded by many a is represented by a 
pronoun in the singular; as, "Many a boy neglects his opportunities 
for improvement." 

Such a noun may be represented by a pronoun in the plural, but 
not in the same clause, or member; as, "Though many a warning was 
given, he disregarded them all." 

G. In the singular number, second person, the singular or the plural 
form of the pronoun should he used throughout the sentence to repre- 
sent the same person; as, "I can not forget that thou wast my friend, 
and I will not repay you [thee] with ingratitude." 

7. A pronoun in the plural representing two or more nouns or pro- 
nouns of different persons connected by and, is in the first person if 
any one of the words which it represents is in the first person; as, "//<■ 
and / (we) are going to our homes." 

If none of the nouns is in the first person, the pronoun is in the 
second person if any one of the nouns which it represents, is in the 
second person; as, "You and he (you) failed in your efforts." 

8. A noun which is either masculine or feminine is usually repre- 
sented by a pronoun in the masculine; as, "A parent corrects the child 
whom he loves." 

'.». Nouns in the singular number, but of different genders, con- 
nected by or or nor, can not be represented by a single pronoun; a 
separate pronoun must !><• used to represent each noun; as, "The boy 
or the girl has losl his or her pen;" this is inelegant, and would be 
better thus: "The boy has \m\ his pen, or the girl has lost hers." 

10. The gender of a pronoun representing two or more nouns of 
different genders, connected by and, can not be determined; as, "The 
boy and the girl lost their way." 



RULE VII.— EXERCISES. 143 

11. The pronoun it is used to represent a noun or a pronoun in 
either number, in any person, or of any gender,— also a sentence or 
a part of a sentence; or it may be used indefinitely, that is, without 
representing any person or thing; as, "It is men, not money, that we 
want." — "It was Queen Isabella that first aided Columbus." — "We 
are open mistaken, but we seldom acknowledge it.'' — "It snowed all 
day." — "They roughed it in the woods and led a jolly life." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model 1. — "Congress passed the bill before they adjourned." 
This sentence is incorrect, because they, which is a pronoun in the plural 
number, is used to represent the collective noun Congress, which is used as 
the name of a number of objects considered collectively; but, according to 
Note under Rule VII., "When the objects composing a unit, etc." There- 
fore they should be it, and the sentence should be, "Congress passed the 
bill before it adjourned." 

2. — "Every officer and every private endeavored to do their duty." 
This sentence is incorrect, because their, which is a pronoun in the plural 
number, is used to represent the two nouns officer and private, which are 
connected by and and are preceded by every; but, according to Note under 
Rule VII., "Two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and and pre- 
ceded by each, etc." Therefore their should be his, and the sentence should 
be, "Every officer and every private endeavored to do his duty." 
3. — "You and I must be obedient to your teachers." 
This sentence is incorrect, because your, which is a pronoun in the second 
person, is used to represent the pronoun I in the first person, and you in the 
second person, connected by and; but, according to Note under Rule VII., 
"A pronoun in the plural representing two or more nouns or pronouns of 
different persons connected by and, is, etc." Therefore your should be our, 
and the sentence should be, "You and I must be obedient to our teachers." 
1 . If any one of you has found an error, let them mention it. 2. May your 
life be always as free from care as it was in thy youth. 3. You and your 
friends cannot always have their wishes gratified. 4. A few of the leaders 
were arrested for his share in the plot. 5. Many an American is not aware 
of their advantages over the citizens of other countries. 6. The news came 
last evening, but no paper has yet published them. 7. If the officer or his 
secretary made the mistake, they should be severely censured. 8. Colum- 
bus, as well as his brother, felt confident that they would succeed in his 
enterprise . 

Exercise II. — Parse the personal -pronouns in the following sentences: — 
Model 1. — "Dost thou try to be consistent in all things?" 
Thou. — {Person addressed) thou dost try. — "Thou" is a personal pro- 
noun, in the singular number, second person, and of the masculine or the 



144 RULE VIII. —RELATIVE PRONOUNS— NOTES. 

feminine gender, to agree with the noun, the name cf the person addressed, 
which it represents, according to Rule VII., "A personal pronoun agrees, 
etc."; it is in the nominative case, being the subject of the finite verb dost 
'ry, according to Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun which is, etc." 

2. — "Few men are admired by their servants." 

Their. — Men their servants. — "Their" is a personal pronoun, in the plural 
number, third person, and of the masculine gender, to agree with the noun 
men which it represents, according to Rule VII., "A personal pronoun, etc."; 
it is in the possessive case, and limits the noun servants, according to Rule 
III., "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive, etc." 

1. Goldsmith was a poet, naturalist, and historian, who touched nothing 
that he did not adorn. 2. All men think all men mortal but themselves. 
3. But when thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what thy right hand 
doeth. 4. The council disagreed in their opinions of the law proposed for 
the punishment of the Protestants. 5. The captain and the crew were 
exhausted by their continued efforts to keep the vessel in her direct course. 
6. The troops took their appointed stations and patiently awaited the 
attack. 7. The army laid waste the country, and desolation marked its 
course. 8. And what is the worth of time? Ask death-beds; they can tell. 

Rule VIII. — Relative Pronouns. 

A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in num- 
ber, person, and gender. 

NOTES. 

1. Who is used when reference is made to persons, or to things 
which are personified; as, "Thou ••<•»», who rulest the dayl" — "He who 
knows every thing, is often deceived." 

2. Which is used when reference is made to inferior animals, to 
infants, and to things without life; as "Sweet arc the songs of the birds 
which sing in the groves." —"The child which was lost, has been found." 
— "Avoid ava/rice, which is a mean vice." 

Which is also used when the objects composing the unit denoted 
by a collective noun arc referred to collectively; as, "The mob which 
filled the streets, seemed bent on violence." 

3. Who, which, and what are sometimes used without referring to 
any antecedent; as, "Who saw the accident ? I can not tell who saw it." 

When so used they are either interrogative or indefinite relative pro- 
nouns; and in parsing them as such, no rule of syntax is to be given 
except the rule for aue. 



RULE VIII.— NOTES. 145 

4. When a proper name of a person is used merely as a word, or to 
denote character, it is represented by which, and not by who; as, "We 
should imitate the example set by Washington, which is a name dear 
to every American." 

5. The following are the principal instances in which that is used 
instead of who or ichich: — 

I. After an adjective or an adverb in the superlativ* degree; as, "He 
read the best books that could be procured." 

II. After the adjective same; as, "Others share the same difficulties 
in study that we encounter." 

III. After who used interrogatively; as, "Who, that indulges in vice, 
can be happy?" 

IV. After two or more antecedents which separately require who 
and which; as, "No man or beast that ventured forth, escaped." 

V. After all, every, etc., and similar antecedents limited in meaning 
by the relative clause following; as, "All that heard him, were pleased." 

VI. After the personal pronoun it used indefinitely; as, "It was he 
that committed the fault." 

6. The rules which determine the number and the gender of the 
personal pronouns, apply also to the relative pronouns. (Rule VII., 
Notes 4, 5, etc.) 

The gender of a relative pronoun having two or more antecedents 
of different genders connected by or or nor or by and, can not be deter- 
mined; as, "I do not know the man or the woman who called." 

7. A relative having antecedents of different persons, agrees in 
person with the antecedent nearest to it; as, " You are a man who has 
great power." —"You, who are a man of great mind, are respected." 

8. Every relative should be placed near its antecedent, in order to 
prevent all doubt as to the meaning intended: thus, "The general 
ordered his men to sleep on their arms, who knew the treachery of the 
enemy," should be, "The general, who knew the treachery of the enemy, 
etc." 

9. A relative should not be used to represent an adjective or a verb: 
thus, "He resolved that he would be truthful, tvhich is a trait that all 
admire," should be, "He resolved, etc., for truthfulness is a trait, 
etc." 

10. The antecedent of a relative is sometimes omitted; as, "(He) 
Who commands himself, commands the whole world." 

10 



146 RULE VIIL— NOTES— EXERCISES. 

11. The relative in the objective is sometimes improperly omitted; 
as, "The good (which) men do is often buried with them." 

12. What used as a relative never has an antecedent mentioned, but, 
in meaning, is equivalent to an antecedent and a relative. This is 
true also of the compound relatives. 

13. What is often incorrectly used for the conjunction that; as, "I 
do not know but iv hat [that] there is truth in your statement." 

14. Whom and which should generally follow the prepositions, but 
should precede the verbs, by which they are governed; — that always 
precedes; as, "The difficulties with which he contended." — "The 
same difficulties that you experienced, happened to me." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model 1. — "The horse, who is a noble animal, ranks next to man." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the relative who is used to agree with 
its antecedent the doud horse, which is the name of an animal inferior to 
man; but, according to Note under Rule VIII., "Which is used when refer- 
ence is made to inferior animals, etc." Therefore u-fto should be which, 
and the sentence should be, "The horse, which is a noble animal, ranks 
next to man." 

2. — "Newton was the greatest philosopher whom England ever pro- 
duced." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the relative trhoin is used after greatest, 
which is an adjective in the superlative degree; but, according to Note under 
Rule VIII., "Thai is used instead of who or which after an adjective or an 
adverb in the superlative degree." Therefore whom should be that, and the 
sentence should be, "Newton was the greatest philosopher that England 
ever produced." 

:?. — "He can not associate with the virtuous, who La vile." 

This sentence La incorrect, because the relative who is separated from its 
antecedent, the pronoun hr, and thereby produces doubt as to the meaning 
intended; but, according to Note under Rule VIIL, "Every relative should 

be placed, etc." Therefore who should be placed near its antecedent, the 

pronoun /». and the sentence should be, "He who is vile, can not associate 

with the virtuous." 

1. All which we hope for. is sometimes denied to us. 2. I do not know 

but what it is best that we are ignoranl of what is in store for us. :{. Kven 
in the midst of the (lames, the boy kept the position which his father had 
placed him in. 4. Even the little, man wants here below, is sometimes 
withheld. 5. The kiliK issued his edict againsl the Catholics, who was a 
Protestant. 6. All who perform their duties faithfully, gain the respect 
of their friends. 7. The army who was under the command of the Emperor, 



RULE VIII.— EXERCISES. 147 

was successful in every battle. 8. The companions, whom he associated 
with, debased his mind and corrupted his morals. 9. The traveler gave 
an amusing account of the persons and animals whom he had seen. 10. 
Neither wealth nor talent, who is so much envied, can alone bring happi- 
ness. 

Exercise II. — Parse the relative -pronouns in the following sentences: — 

Model 1. — "Give me what this ribbon bound." 

What. — Give what. — bound what. — "What" is a relative pronoun, and, 
in meaning, includes both relative and antecedent {thing which) ; it is in the 
singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender, to agree with its 
antecedent (not mentioned), according to Rule VIII., "A relative pronoun, 
etc."; it is in the objective case, being the object of the action asserted by 
the verb give, according to Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun which is the 
object, etc."; — it is also the object of the action asserted by the verb 
bound, according to Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

2. — "The reign of William and Mary, who succeeded James II., was an 
important one in English history." 

Who. — William and Mary who succeeded. — "Who" is a relative pronoun, 
in the plural number, third person, according to Note under Rule VIII., 
"A pronoun having two or more antecedents connected by and, etc."; its 
gender can not be determined, because its antecedents connected by and 
are of different genders, according to Note under Rule VIII., "The gender 
of a pronoun, having two or more antecedents, etc."; — it is in the nomina- 
tive case, being the subject of the finite verb succeeded, according to Rule 
I., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

3. — "Whoever it was that committed the error, is deserving of reproof." 

Whoever. — Whoever is— it was whoever. — "Whoever" is a compound 
relative pronoun, in meaning equivalent to any one who; — it is in the sin- 
gular number, third person, and of the masculine or the feminine gender, 
to agree with its antecedent (not mentioned), according to Rule VIII.; — 
"A relative pronoun agrees, etc."; it is in the nominative case, being the 
subject of the finite verb is, by Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun, etc."; — 
it is also in the nominative case after the verb was, because it denotes the 
same person as the pronoun it, which is in the nominative case, being the 
subject of the finite verb was, according to Rule VI., "A noun or a pro- 
noun, etc." 

1 . Our gratitude is due to those who have endeavored to assist us in our 
efforts to acquire knowledge. 2. Whatever will tend to enlarge our minds 
and to elevate our nature, should receive our attention. 3. That is not 
always right which at first seems right. 4. You, who possess these advan- 
tages, so superior to those of your associates, should be thankful. 5. All 
that are so disposed, can make their influence for good felt by those around 
them. 6. The general did what he could for the comfort of his men during 
their long march. 7. Not a habitation nor an inhabitant that lay in the 
route, was spared. 8. Whoever will, may drink from the fountain of knowl- 



148 RULE IX.— ARTICLES— NOTES. 

edge. 9. Who, that gazes upon the myriads of stars which sparkle in the 
vaults of heaven, can doubt the existence of a divine being? 10. Those 
powers of mind which one enjoys, another may want. 11. Washington 
said: "I hope I shall always possess firmness and virtue enough to main- 
tain what I consider the most enviable of all titles, the character of an 
'honest man.' " 



Rule IX. — Articles. 

An article relates to the noun which it limits in 
meaning. 

NOTES. 

1. The can relate to a noun in either the singular or the plural num- 
ber; as, The book; the multitude*; the three vessels. 

A or an can relate to a noun in the singular only, or to a collective 
noun; as, A book; a cold day; an excited multitude. 

2. The is used before a noun in the singular number regarded as 
the name of a whole species, or class; as, "The lion is called the king 
of beasts." "The palm-tree grows only in warm climates." 

The is used before each of several particulars included in a general 
term or class; as, "Nouns have three genders; the masculine, the femi- 
nine, and the ui uter." 

3. The, placed before a proper noun, renders the proper noun com- 
mon; as, "The Cvbero of America." .1 or an thus placed may have 
the same effect ; as, " Every poel is not a Milton or a Byron" 

Except when the is used to .--how that a particular object is meant; 
as, "'/'/// Pacific was lost at sea, and all on board perished." 

■1. The article should not be Used before the names of virtues, vices, 
mat, rials, sciences, etc., <>r before common names applied in their 
widest sense to persons; as. "The study of mathematics is useful."— 
" Immense fields of coal were discovered." "Man is guided by reason; 
the brute, by instinct." 

."). The article is omitted before the name of a species included in 
a class: thus, "The dog is a faithful kind of an animal," should he, 
"The dog is a faithful kind of animal." 

The article should be omitted before titles or names used merely 
as such, or used simply as words: thus, "The title of a duke was be- 
stowed upon Wellington," should be, "The title of duke, etc."— "The 



RULE IX. -NOTES. 149 

Jews called their priests the Rabbis," should be, "The Jews called 
their priests Rabbis." 

6. The article never relates to nouns limited by the pronominal 
adjectives any, each, either, every, much, neither, no, none, some, this, 
these, that, those, — or by pronouns in the possessive case. 

7. The sometimes relates to an adjective used as a noun; as, "The 
poor ye have always with you." 

The article in such constructions may also be parsed as relating to 
some noun understood after the adjective. 

8. When an article is used before the comparative or the super- 
lative degree of an adjective, it relates to a noun mentioned or under- 
stood after the adjective; as, "I said a better soldier, not a wiser (sol- 
dier)." — "Of friends prove to be the truest (friend)." 

The has the force of an adverb when used before an adverb in the 
comparative or the superlative degree; as, "The more intelligent we 
become, the less are we satisfied with our knowledge." 

9. A has sometimes the force of a preposition; as, "The machinery 
was set a going." 

10. An adjective expressing plurality is sometimes preceded by the 
indefinite article; as, "A dozen birds were killed, but only a few of 
them could be found." 

In such instances the article relates to the adjective used as a noun, 
and the adjective limits the noun following; or, the expression includ- 
ing the article and the adjective may be parsed together as an adjective. 
The former mode of parsing is preferable. 

11. The article is used before few, little, and other adjectives ex- 
pressing a similar meaning, to imply some: thus, "A little allowance 
was made for his failure," implies that some allowance was made, 
etc. 

The article is omitted before few, little, etc., to imply not many, 
or not much: thus, "Little allowance was made for his failure," implies 
that not much allowance was made, etc. "Few heard it," implies that 
not many heard it. 

12. The article is used only with the first of several adjectives con- 
nected expressing different qualities, and relating to but one noun; as, 
"A red, white, and blue flag was hoisted"; — this means that one flag 
of these three colors was hoisted. 

When several adjectives connected relate to the same noun men- 



150 RULE IX. ~ NOTES- EXERCISES. 

tioned or understood more than once, and meaning different persons 
or things, the article should be used with each adjective: thus, "A red, 
a white, and a blue flag," means three flags of different colors. "A 
sweet and sour apple," should be, "a sweet and a sour apple." 

13. If a comparison is expressed between two nouns referring to 
the same person or thing, the article should be used before the first 
noun only; as, "He is a better politician than lawyer." In this sen- 
tence different qualifications of one person are compared. 

If a comparison is expressed between two nouns referring to differ- 
ent persons or things, the article should be used before each noun; 
as, "He is a better politician than a lawyer (is)." In this sentence 
the same qualifications of different persons are considered. 

14. The article should be used before each of two or more nouns, 
having different constructions, or expressing direct contrast; it is also 
repeated for the sake of emphasis: as, "The day but not the hour was 
fixed."— "The rich and the poor suffered alike." 

15. The article is placed before the noun to which it relates; as, A 
man; the children; an hour. 

16. An adjective, or an adjective qualified by an adverb, is some- 
times placed between the article and the noun to which it relates; as, 
A very intelligent man; the little children. 

Winn the adjective is qualified by as, how, so, or too, the article is 
placed after the adjective; as, "How great a matter a little fire kin- 
dleth." 

17. The article is used Ixforr the following pronominal adjectives: 
— few, former, first, luttir, last, little, one, other, and same; as, "He 
will do neither the one tiling nor the other." 

The article is used after the following pronominal adjectives: — all, 
both, many, such, and irhnt; as, "Both the men were guilty." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model 1. — "He is a better writer than a speaker." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the article a is used before each of the 
nouns speaker and writer which refer to one person having different quali- 
fications compared; but, according to Note under Rule IX., "If a com- 
parison is expressed betwaap two nouns referring to the same person or 
thin*:, etc." Therefore a should be omitted, and the sentence should be, 
"He is a better writer than speaker." 

2. — "The man wore a brown and a gray hat." 



EXERCISES— RULE X.— ADJECTIVES. 151 

This sentence is incorrect, because the article a is used before the ad- 
jective gray, which is connected with the adjective brown, both of which 
express different qualities of the same thing; but, according to Note under 
Rule IX., "The article is used only with the first of several adjectives con- 
nected, etc." Therefore a should be omitted, and the sentence should be, 
"The man wore a brown and gray hat." 

3. — "The lady purchased a too great number of articles." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the adjective great, which is qualified 
by the adverb too, is placed between the noun and the article which relates 
to the noun; but, according to Note under Rule IX., "When the adjective 
is qualified by as, how, so, or too, the article, etc." Therefore a should be 
placed after the adjective great, and the sentence should be, "The lady pur- 
chased too great a number of articles." 

1. Franklin was no less a statesman than a philosopher. 2. A too great 
reward was given for a so slight service. 3. The word is a noun or verb 
according to its use. 4. The Russian and Italian people differ from each 
other in their habits and customs. 5. No person shall be eligible to the 
office of a president, who shall not have attained the age of thirty-five 
years. 6. An orange is more wholesome than pine-apple. 7. The hyena 
is a species of a dog. 8. A large and small book were offered to him as a 
reward for his industry. 9. The black and the white horse was injured 
by his fall. 10. As his misfortunes resulted from his own misconduct, he 
had the sympathy of a few of his friends. 

Exercise II. — Parse the articles in the following sentences: — 
Model. — "A rudely carved stone marked the place of his burial." 
A. — A stone. — "A" is the indefinite article; it relates to the noun stone, 
which it limits in meaning, according to Rule IX., "An article relates, etc." 
The. — The place. — "The" is the definite article; it relates to the noun 
place, which it limits in meaning, according to Rule IX., "An article re- 
lates, etc." 

When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall, one 
by one, an unpitied sacrifice, in a contemptible struggle. 

Near yonder copse where once the garden smiled, 
And still where many a garden-flower grows wild, 
There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, 
The village preacher's modest mansion rose. 
A man he was to all the country dear, 
And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 

Rule X. — Adjectives. 

An adjective relates to the noun or the pronoun which 
it describes or limits. 



152 RULE X.— NOTES. 



NOTES. 



1. An adjective may describe or limit a phrase, a clause, or a sen- 
tence; as, "That he did all in his power, is certain." 

An adjective sometimes describes the meaning of another adjective; 
as, An iron-gray horse. The two adjectives should be connected by 
a hyphen, thus forming a compound adjective. 

An adjective sometimes relates to a noun described or limited by 
another adjective, the noun and the latter adjective forming a com- 
plex noun; as, A bright little boy; an intelligent young man. 

2. An adjective is sometimes used abstractly after a participle, or 
a verb in the infinitive mode, that is, without relating to any noun or 
pronoun; as, "To be honest is the best way of being trusted." 

3. Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, especially when pre- 
ceded by the definite article, or by a pronominal adjective; as, "The 
vessel was tossed by the billows of the deep." — "None but the brave 
deserve the jair." — "All partial evil is universal good." 

1. When an adjective is used to express a comparison between two 
objects considered separately, the comparative degree should be used; 
as, "His mind was more mature than his body." 

When the comparative degree is used, it' the objects compared belong 
to one and the same class, the latter term of comparison should in per 
include the former: thus, "Shakspeare is more admired than any 
English poet," should be "Shakspeare is more admired than any 
other English poet." 

5. When an adjective is used to express the highest or the lowest 
quality belonging to two or more objects considered as one class, the 
superlative degree should be used: as, "Although gold is the most 

valuable of metals, it is of the least real Use." 

When the superlative degree is used, the latter term of the com- 
parison should always include the former: thus, "Shakspeare is the 
most admired of all the ether English poets," should be, "Shakspeare 
is the most admired of all the English poets." 

<i. Two signs of the comparative or of the superlative degree should 
never be used; thus, "The lesser evil," should be, "the less evil"; — 
"The niOSt strictest sect," should lie, "the strictest sect." 

7. In prose, an adjective should never be used instead of an adverb, 
to qualify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb: thus, "He arose 



RULE X.— NOTES- EXERCISES. 153 

slow from the ground, and resumed his journey," should be, "He 
arose slowly, etc." 

In poetry, an adjective is sometimes used instead of an adverb; as, 
"Slow rises merit, when by poverty oppressed," instend of "Slowly 
rises merit, etc." In the former sentence, slow is to be parsed as an 
adverb. 

8. When an adjective follows a finite verb, and is not followed by 
a noun or a pronoun mentioned or understood, it relates to the sub- 
ject of the verb; as, "The ice seemed to be as smooth as glass."— "He 
was pronounced guilty" — "The snow lies deep." 

9. An adjective expressing plurality must relate to a noun in the 
plural number; as, "He stood six feet (not foot) high;" except many 
when immediately followed by a; as, Many a flower. 

Certain nouns, used collectively, retain the singular form when 
preceded by numeral adjectives expressing plurality; as, "A hundred 
head of cattle were sold." — "A fleet of twenty sail appeared." 

When a compound adjective is composed of a numeral and a noun, 
the latter is never made plural; as, "A twenty-foot pole was used." — 
"The pocket-book contained two five-dollar notes." 

10. An adjective is generally placed before the noun, but after the 
pronoun to which it relates; as, An able lawyer. — "He is old and feeble." 
— "The groves were man's first temples." 

There are many exceptions to this rule of position, especially in 
poetry. In general, the adjective should be so placed that there can 
be no doubt as to what noun or pronoun it describes or limits. 

11. A pronominal or a numeral adjective precedes another adjec- 
tive which describes the same noun; as, "The three dishonest clerks 
were arrested." — "That accomplished young lawyer greatly distin- 
guished himself." 

12. When two numeral adjectives, one denoting unity, the other 
plurality, precede a noun, the noun is made plural, and the adjective 
denoting plurality is placed next to it; as, "The first three stanzas." 

If the first stanza of each of three poems were intended, it would 
be correct to say, "The three first stanzas." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — "The hermit lived in the most strictest seclusion." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the adjective most strictest has two 



154 RULE X.— EXERCISES. 

signs of the superlative degree (?nost and -est) ; but, according to Note 
under Rule X., "Two signs of the comparative or of the superlative 
degree should never be used." Therefore most should be omitted, and the 
sentence should be, "The hermit lived in the strictest seclusion." 
2. — "This was more Wilson's case than any man's that ever wrote." 
This sentence is incorrect, because man, the latter term of the compari- 
son, includes Wilson, the former; that is, they are not considered sepa- 
rately; but, according to Note under Rule X., "When the comparative 
degree is used, etc." Therefore other should be inserted before the noun 
man, and the sentence should be, "This was more Wilson's case than any 
other man's that ever wrote." 

1. His writings are remarkable chaste and clear. 2. Colleges afford more 
general and higher instruction than common schools. 3. Which is the most 
northern division of the Eastern Continent, Asia or Europe? 4. He seemed 
the best informed of any historian of the age in which he lived. 5. Few 
writers made hits which were more happier than his. 6. Education is more 
universal with the Caucasian than any race. 7. His language was so plain 
that I understood him the best of all others that spoke on the subject. 8. 
The preacher spoke earnest, and his words deeply impressed the young 
sinful man. 9. The population of Russia is greater than that of any nation 
of Europe. 10. Our bodies should be kept more perpendicular than is 
Customary with US. 11. The water is only five foot deep on the bar. 
ExEKCISB II. — Pane tin- adjectives in the following sentences: — 
Model 1. — "To receive the approbation of our friends is pleasant." 
Pleasant. — To receive the approbation «j our frit mis (is) pleasant. — "Plea- 
sant" is an adjective; it can he compared (pos. pleasant, comp. pleasanter, 
super, pleasantest) ; it is in tin- positive degree, and relates to the phrase, 
To receive the approbation <</ <>ur friends, which it describes according to 
Note under Rule X., "An adjective may describe or limit, etc." 
2. — "A white-haired old man placed himself at their head." 
White-haired. — White-haired ,,l,l man. — "White-haired" is a compound 
adj.; it can he compared (white-haired, whiter-haired, whitest-haired); 
— it relates to the adj. old ami the noun man used together as a complex 
noun, which it describes; according to Note under Rule X., "An adjective, 
etc." 

3. — "The New Zealand chiefs tattoo their faces." 
New Zealand. — New Zealand chiefs. — "New Zealand" is a proper noun 
used as an adjective; it can not be compared; — il relates to the noun chiefs, 
which it describes, according to Rule X . "An adjective relates, etc." 

l'i \. i. — Lovely art thou, () Peace! and lovely are thy children, and 
lovely are the prints of thy footstep- in the green valleys. 

Blue wreaths of smoke ri-e among the trees, betraying the half-hidden 

cottage; the eye contemplates well-thatched ricks and hams bursting with 

plenty. 

White houses peep through the trees; cattle stand cooling in the pool; the 



RULE XL— PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES— NOTES. 155 

casement of the farm-house is covered with jessamine and honeysuckle; the 
stately green-house exhales the perfume of summer climates. 

The housewife's stores of bleached linen, whiter than snow, are laid up 
with fragrant herbs; they are the pride of the matron, the toil of many a 
winter's night. 

War. — The smoke rises not through the trees, for the honors of the 
grove are fallen, and the hearth of the cottage is cold; but it rises from 
villages burned with fire, and from warm ruins spread over the now naked 
plain. 

The groans of the wounded are in the hospitals, and by the roadside, 
and in every thicket; and the housewife's web, whiter than snow, is scarcely 
sufficient to stanch the blood of her husband and sons. 

Everything unholy and unclean comes abroad from its lurking-place, 
and deeds of darkness are done beneath the eye of day. The villagers no 
longer start at horrible sight; the soothing rites of burial are denied, and 
human bones are tossed by human hands. 

Oh! a dainty plant is the ivy green 

That creepeth o'er ruins old ! 
Of right choice food are his meals, I ween, 

In his cell so lone and cold. 
The walls must be crumbled, the stones decayed, 

To pleasure his dainty whim; 
And the mouldering dust that years have made, 

Is a merry meal for him. 



Rule XI. — Pronominal Adjectives and Adjective Pronouns. 

A pronominal adjective relates to the noun which it 
limits. An adjective pronoun agrees with the noun which 
it represents, in number, person, and gender. 



1. This and that refer to nouns in the singular number; these and 
those, to nouns in the plural; as, This man; these men. 

2. This and these refer with definiteness to what is near; as, "This 
valley is very fruitful." 

That and those refer with definiteness to what is distant, or to what 
is farther away than something else; as, "Those mountain-tops are 
covered with snow." 



156 RULE XL— NOTES. 

In contrast, or when two things are named, this and these refer to 
the latter, and that and those, to the former; as, "Reason is superior 
to instinct; this (instinct) belongs to the brute, that (reason) to man." 

3. Them is sometimes incorrectly used for those: thus, "Them acts 
injured himself only," should be, "Those acts, etc." 

4. Each refers singly to two or to more than two objects; as, "Each 
pupil in the class was present." 

5. Either and neither refer to one of two objects only. Either means 
one or the other of two objects, and neither means not either of two; as, 
"Two plans were proposed, but neither gained favor." 

Either is often improperly used for each: thus, "Tall oaks lined 
either side of the road," should be, "Tall oaks lined each side, etc." 

6. Every refers to each of more than two objects and includes all 
taken separately or singly; it is never used without a noun expressed; 
as, "Every good tree bringeth forth good fruit." 

Every is sometimes used before a numeral adjective and a noun 
taken together to denote a collective number or quantity; as, Every 
five weeks; every three bii.shel.s-. 

7. Another and one refers to nouns in the singular; as, One man, 
another man; other, to nouns in the singular or in the plural; as, The 
other book; the other books. 

When they are used as nouns, they can be declined, another being 
in the singular only. 

8. Any refers to nouns in the singular or in the plural; and is also 
used to denote strongly or emphatically some indefinite object; as, 
"The powers of any man's mind are strengthened by use." 

9. All refers to more than two objects, and includes them taken 
jointly; as, ".1// men can distinguish between good and evil." 

10. None, although strictly meaning no one, represents nouns in 
the singular or in the plural; as, "A book was wanted, but none was 
found." "Many boys were struck, but none were injured." 

None is never used, except when the noun is omitted. 

11. Some denotes one or an indefinite portion, and refers to nouns 
in the singular or in the plural; as, "Some one must do the work." — 
"Some of the work was finished." 

12. Such donotes an object of the same nature as another, and 
refers to nouns in the singular or in the plural; as, "Such a sight was 
never witnessed before." 



RULE XL— NOTES— EXERCISES. 157 

13. Few, several, and many (except when immediately followed by 
a), refer to nouns in the plural. 

14. Which and what, and the compounds formed from them, refer 
to nouns in the singular or in the plural. 

15. A pronominal adjective is parsed as an adjective when the 
noun which it limits, is mentioned; as, "Each boy's conduct was deserv- 
ing of praise." . ■ 

An adjective pronoun may be parsed as a pronoun, that is, as 
representing a noun, when it is correctly used without an article, and 
the noun is not mentioned; as, "Each was praised for his good 
conduct." 

An adjective is used as a noun when it describes or limits no noun 
mentioned, and has an article before it; as, "The many are not wise: 
a few were saved." — "The weary may here find rest." The noun, 
however, may be supplied, and weary, few, etc., may be parsed as 
adjectives. 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model 1. — "These sort of animals is found only in warm climates." 

This sentence is incorrect, because these, which is a demonstrative pro- 
nominal adjective in the plural, is used to refer to the noun sort, which is in 
the singular number; but, according to Note under Rule XL, "This and 
that refer, etc." Therefore these should be this, and the sentence should 
be, "This sort of animals is found only in warm climates." 

2. — "Either of the five men was considered qualified." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the distributive pronom. adjective 
either is used in referring to more than two objects; but, according to Note 
under Rule XL, "Either and neither refer, etc." Therefore either should 
be each, and the sentence should be, "Each of the five men was considered 
qualified." 

1. Neither of those three seems to know that their opinions are unjust. 
2. Them sentiments should never be encouraged among youth. 3. That 
different species of reptiles are not found in the same latitude. 4. On 
either side the soldiers displa3 r ed the greatest courage. 5. Neither side of 
a square is as long as a diagonal joining its opposite angles. 6. Those 
bad news spread like wild-fire. 7. He bade farewell to his friends and 
foes; with those he left his peace, and with these his love. 8. Any one of 
the two subjects would have been very interesting. 9. These class of 
minerals is found only in the mountainous regions in the western part of 
South America. 10. He has not left his house this last three months. 

Exercise II. — Parse the pronominal adjectives or adjective pronouns in 
the following sentences: — 



158 RULE XII. —AGREEMENT OF FINITE VERBS. 

Model 1. — "Each of the students seemed desirous to excel in the con- 
test for the prize." 

Each. — Each seemed. — "Each" is a distributive pronominal adjective; it 
represents the noun student (understood), with which it agrees in the sin- 
gular number, third person, mascuhne or feminine gender, according to 
Rule XL, "A pronominal adjective, etc."; it is in the nominative case, 
being the subject of the finite verb seemed, according to Rule I., "A noun 
or a pronoun, etc." 

2. — "Some instruction is not adapted to young minds." 

Some. — Some instruction. — "Some" is an indefinite pronominal adjec- 
tive; it cannot be compared; — it relates to the noun instruction which it 
limits, according to Rule XL, "A pronominal adjective, etc." 

1. Every citizen should obey the laws of the country by which he is pro- 
tected. 2. Although the wise have many advantages over the ignorant, 
these are not always miserable, nor are those always happy. 3. A man 
who has industry and perseverance can, by these means, provide for all 
his natural wants. 4. The oak sometimes overtops all the other trees in 
the forest. 5. During these five years the ministry endeavored to provide 
some means to insure success. 6. In that secluded spot some of the happiest 
days of the emigrant's life werespent. 7. No person who is less than thirty- 
five years old is eligible to the office of President of the United States. 
8. Another's hand has laid him low. 9. Every man's fortune depends 
chiefly on his own exertions. 11). Sonic Cupid kills with arrows; some, 
with traps. 11. There is no man suddenly either excellently good, or 
extremely evil. 12. To what base uses the noble gifts of man's nature 
arc sometimes perverted! 13. There is none made so "Treat as not to need 

both the help anil the service of the meanest of mortals. 14. Some desire 
is needed to keep life in motion; and lie whose real wants are supplied must 

admit those of fancy. 



Rule XII. — Agreement of Finite Verbs. 

A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and per- 
son. 

NOTES. 

1 . The pronoun we or you, even when representing a single indi- 
vidual, requires the plural form of a verb, because the form of the 
pronoun is plural; as, "Harry, I think tint you arc in error." 

2. Every finite verb, except a verb in the imperative mode, should 
hive a subject mentioned, unless two or more verbs are connected in 
the same construction. 



RULE XII.— NOTES. 159 

3. A verb in the imperative mode agrees with the pronoun thou or 
you understood; as, "Go (thou) to the ant, thou sluggard." 

4. A verb never agrees with a noun in the first or the second per- 
son, but with the pronoun representing such noun; as, "James, thou 
art an honest boy." 

5. A verb having for its subject the indefinite personal pronoun it, 
and followed by another nominative, agrees with its subject it, and 
not with the other nominative; as, "It was you," not, "It were you." 

6. A verb having for its subject a phrase, or a clause, used as a 
noun, agrees with it in the singular number, third person; as, "To 
conquer one's spirit is better than to take a city." 

7. A verb having for its subject a collective noun which suggests 
the idea of unity, is in the singular number; as, "Congress holds its 
sessions in the national capital." 

A collective noun which suggests the idea of plurality requires a 
verb in the plural; as, "The clergy were blamed for the part which they 
took in such cases." 

8. The number of a verb having for its subject a noun which has 
the same form in both numbers, is determined by the meaning of its 
subject, and not by the form; as, "A brace of ducks were sold." 

9. A verb having two or more subjects connected by and mentioned 
or understood, is in the plural number; as, "Truth, honor, and mercy, 
are noble qualities." 

If two or more subjects in the singular connected by and are used 
to denote but one person or thing, the verb should be in the singular; 
as, "That statesman and patriot merits our gratitude." 

If singular subjects connected by and are preceded by each, every, 
no, or a similar distributive, they are considered separately, and re- 
quire a verb in the singular; as, "Every nerve and sinew was strained 
to make the effort." 

If two or more subjects are connected by as well as, and also, but 
not, etc., they belong to different propositions, and the verb men- 
tioned agrees with the first, each of the others being the subject of 
a verb understood; as, "The mother, as well as her children, was 
saved." 

10. A verb having two or more subjects in the singular connected 
by or or nor, is in the singular number; as, "Neither the time nor the 
cause of the accident is known." 



160 RULE XII.— NOTES -EXERCISES. 

If one of the subjects connected by or or nor is plural, the verb should 
be plural; and the plural subject should be placed next to the verb; 
as, "Neither he nor his friends ivere to be blamed." 

11. A subject having a plural form, but forming a part of a com- 
plex noun, requires a verb in the singular; as, "Johnson's 'Lives of 
the Poets' ivas published in London." 

12. A verb having two or more subjects of different persons con- 
nected by and, is in the first person if any one of the subjects is in the 
first person; as, "He and / (we) are going." 

If there is no subject in the first person, the verb is in the second 
person if any one of the sub jets is in the second person; as, "You and 
he (you) are going." 

13. A verb having two or more subjects of different persons con- 
nected by or or nor, agrees in person with the subject nearest to it; as, 
"He or / am going;" better, He is going, or / am. 

14. The subject of a verb may have a noun or a pronoun of a differ- 
ent person in apposition with it; as, "/, your best friend, advise you." 
The verb agrees with the first noun or pronoun. 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model 1. "We was all surprised at the result." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb was surprised, which is in the 
singular Dumber, is used to agree with its subject we, which is a pronoun in 

the plural Dumber, but, according to Ride XII., "A finite verb agrees, etc." 
Therefore irns surprised should be were surprised, and the sentence should 
be, "We were all surprised at the result." 

2. — "Honor and shame from no condition rises." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb rises, which is in the singular 
number, is used to agree with its two subjects, the nouns honor and shame, 

which are connected by ond; but. according to Note under Rule XII., "A 
verb having two or more subjects connected by and, etc." Therefore rises 
should be ri8e, and the sentence should be, "Honor and shame from no 
condition rise." 

3. — "Every plant, every insect, every animal, have an important part in 
the economy of nature." 

This sentence is incorrect . because have, which is a verb in t he plural num- 
ber, is used to agree with plant, insect, and animal, which tire subjects in the 
singular preceded by i w ry; but. according to Note under Rule XII., "When 
singular subjects connected by and are preceded by each, etc." Therefore 
Iiiivi should be has, and t he sentence should be, " Every plant , every insect, 

and every animal, has an important part in the economy of nature." 



RULE XII.— EXERCISES. 161 

4. — "He or I is to go." 

This sentence is incorrect, because is, which is a verb in the third person, 
is used to agree with the pronouns he and /, two subjects of different persons 
connected by or; but, according to Note under Rule XII., "A verb having 
two or more subjects of different persons, etc." Therefore is should be am, 
and the sentence should be, "He or I am to go." 

1. The working class of the people is much better educated than they 
formerly was. 2. Idleness and wastefulness has brought thousands from 
wealth to poverty. 3. One or both of the boys is in the garden. 4. Mathe- 
matics are a study which require close attention. 5. The rise or fall of wages 
depend much upon the cost of food. 6. The bear, as well as the deer, are 
nearly extinct in the eastern part of the United States. 7. The white sails 
of the schooner appears like the wings of great sea-fowls. 8. A succession 
of poor harvests were the occasion of great suffering among the peasantry. 
9. Only a few stones and the lines of a fort remains of the once important 
city. 10. Much does pride and haughtiness require reproof. 11. The 
religion, as well as the customs and manners, of those nations, are entirely 
different from all others. 

Exercise II. — Parse the finite verbs in the following sentences:— 

Model 1. — "Henry studies his lesson." 

Studies. — Henry studies lesson. — "Studies" is a finite transitive verb, 
regular (pres. study, past, studied, perf . part, studied) ; it is in the active 
voice, indicative mode, present tense, and agrees with its subject, the 
noun Henry, in the singular number, third person, according to Rule XII., 
"A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and person." 

2. — "Henry and James study diligently." 

Study. — Henry and James study. — "Study" is a finite intransitive verb, 
regular (pres. study, past, studied, perf. part, studied); it has no voice; — in 
the indicative mode, present tense, and agrees with its two subjects, the 
nouns Henry and James, connected by and, in the plural number, third 
person, according to Rule XII., "A finite verb agrees, etc."; and Note 
under Rule XII., "A verb having two or more subjects connected by and, 
etc." 

3. — "Each name and number should be distinctly written." 

Should be written. — (Each) name and number should be written. — "Should 
be written" is a finite transitive verb, irregular (pres. write, past, wrote, 
perf. part, written) ; — in the passive voice, potential mode, past tense, and 
agrees with its two subjects, the nouns name and number, which are in the 
singular and connected by and and preceded by each, in the sing, num., 
third person, according to Rule XII., "A finite verb agrees, etc."; and 
Note under Rule XII., "If singular subjects connected by and and pre- 
ceded by each, etc." 

4. — "If it should be raining, I will remain." 

Should be raining. — (If) it should be raining. — "Should be raining" is a 
11 



162 EXERCISES— RULE XIII.— INFINITIVES. 

finite intransitive verb, regular {rain, rained, rained) ; it has no voice ; — in 
the potential mode used subjunctively, past tense, progressive form, and 
agrees with its subject, the pronoun it, in the sing, number, third person, 
according to Rule XII., "A finite verb agrees, etc." 

5. "The man's excuses were laughed at." 

Were laughed at. — Excuses were laughed at. — "Were laughed at" is a 
complex finite transitive verb, regular {laugh, laughed, laughed); — in the 
pass, voice, indicative mode, past tense, and agrees with its subject, the 
noun excuses, in the plural number, third person, according to Rule XII., 
"A finite verb agrees with its .subject in number and person." 

6. — '^Yere I Brutus, etc." 

Were. — / were. — "Were" is a finite intrans. verb, irreg. {am, was, been); 
it has no voice; — in the subj. mode, past tense, and agrees w T ith its subject, 
the pronoun /, in the sing, num., first person, according to Rule XII., "A 
finite, etc." 

1. Prove all things: hold fast to that which is good. 2. The}' are never 
alone who are accompanied by noble thoughts. 3. Science and art have 
done much to improve our condition. 4. Every party, as well as every 
tribe, has its chief, who controls those who are subordinate to him. 5. The 
ambassador with his secretary arrived safely at court. 6. "Do to others 
as you would have others do to yon." should he the rule of conduct for all. 
7. The fleet frequently changed its position in order to avoid the fire of the 
enemy. 8. The embassy were unable to agree upon terms of peace. 9. 
A score of wil^l pigeons were killed at every discharge of the gun. 10. The 
scoffs, the gibes, the jeers of the foolish, are unheeded by the wise. 

Neither a borrower nor a lender be, 
for loan oft loses both itself and friend: 
And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 
This above all: — To thine own sell' be true; 
And it must follow, as the night the day, 
Thou canst not then be false to any man. 

Forth in the phasing Spring 
Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love. 

Wide Hush the fields; the softening air is balm; 
Echo the mountains round; the forest smiles; 
And every sense ami every heart is joy. 



Rule XIII.— Infinitives. 

A verb in the infinitive mode depends upon the word 
which it limits or completes in meaning. 



RULE XIII. -NOTES. 1C3 



NOTES. 



1. A verb in the infinitive mode usually depends upon a finite verb; 
but it may depend upon another infinitive, upon a participle, or upon 
any part of speech except the article and the interjection. 

2. An infinitive is sometimes used independently; as, "To speak 
the truth, I think that it was he who was in fault." 

3. An infinitive may be used as a noun in the nominative or in the 
objective case; as, "To study seemed his only desire." 

When so used, it may be qualified in the same manner as a finite 
verb is qualified; as, "To act promptly requires decision of character." 

An infinitive used as a noun may, if it is transitive and in the active 
voice, govern a noun or a pronoun in the objective case; as, "They 
loved to improve their minds by reading." — "To make money is not 
the sole object of life/' 

The infinitive of an intransitive verb, or an infinitive in the passive 
voice, may, when used as a noun, have a noun or a pronoun after it 
used independently; as, "To become a good man is a nobler aim than 
to become a great one." — "To be elected president was his aim." 

4. A verb in the infinitive mode has no subject; but it may relate 
to a noun or to a pronoun in the nominative or in the objective case; 
as, "We all supposed him to be truthful." 

5. The auxiliary to should not be separated from the remainder 
of the infinitive by any intervening word: thus, "Be careful to not 
disturb him," should be, "Be careful not to disturb him." 

6. The auxiliary to is usually omitted when the infinitive follows 
the active voice of the verbs bid (to command), dare (to venture), feel, 
hear, let, make, need, and see and verbs of similar meaning (such as 
behold, mark, observe, watch, etc.); as, "I did not hear him (to) speak 
on that subject." 

To is not omitted after the passive voice of the verbs bid, dare, feel, 
etc.; as. "The prisoner was seen by several to commit the act." 

It may sometimes be properly used after the active voice of these 
verbs; as, "He did not feel himself to be in fault." 

7. When several infinitives are connected, to is used with the first, 
but is usually omitted in the others; as, "To plow, sow, cultivate, and 
reap, is the order of succession." 

8. At the end of a sentence, to should not be used for the full form 



164 RULE XIIL— NOTES— EXERCISES. 

of the infinitive: thus, "I wished to go, but I had no opportunity to," 
should be, " — I had no opportunity to go." 

9. The present tense of the infinitive should usually be used when- 
ever the action, the being, or the state, expressed by the infinitive, is 
present or future, compared with that expressed by the principal verb; 
as, "He hoped to merit the praise of his friends " 

Verbs expressing command, expectation, hope, intention, etc., require 
the present tense of the infinitive after them; as, "The general ordered 
the assault to be made at daybreak." 

10. The present perfect tense of the infinitive should usually be 
used whenever the action, the being, or the state, expressed by the 
infinitive, is past, compared with that expressed by the principal verb; 
as, "Milton seems to have had a wonderful imagination." 

After seems, appears, etc., the present perfect tense is correctly used 
if followed by a term denoting past time, or if reference is made to a 
person no longer living, or to an act known to be past; as, "James 
seems to hurt- been sick yesterday." — "Napoleon appears to have been 
governed chiefly by ambition." 

11. An infinitive having the form of the active voice is sometimes 
used with a passive meaning; as, "He is to blame." — "The agent has 
a bouse /" rent." — "There are two rooms f<> lei." 

Exactness would require the form of the passive voice in all such 
instances; a-. "He is t<> be blamed." — "A house to be rented" 

Km Rcisi I — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
nnic for each correction : — 

Model 1, — "He did no more than it was his duty to have done." 

This sentence- is incorrect, because to Ion; done, which is the present per- 
fect tense of the infinitive, is used t<> express an action which was present 
compared with the time of the action expressed by tin- verb did, upon 
which it depends; tun, according to Note under Rule XIII., "The present 

tense of the infinitive Should Usually be used, etc." Therefore to hare done 
should he to do, and the sentence should lie, "He did no more than it was 
his duty to do." 

2. — "He was never heard speak upon that subject." 

'I lii- sentence i- incorrect, because /». which i- a part of the infinitive to 
apeak, is omitted after was heard, the passive voice of the veil) to hear; but, 
according to Note under Rule XII I., "To is not omitted, etc." Therefore 
speak should he to speak, and the sentence should he, "He was never heard 
to speak upon that subject. " 

3. — "The man was ordered to not .smoke in the car." 



RULE XIII.— EXERCISES. 165 

This sentence is incorrect, because the auxiliary to is separated from the 
remainder of the infinitive by inserting the adverb not; but, according to 
Note under Rule XIII., "The auxiliary to should not be separated, etc." 
Therefore to should be placed after not, and the sentence should be, "The 
man was ordered not to smoke in the car." 

1. We seldom see men to conduct themselves consistently at all times. 
2. He had not then consented to go, nor did he intend to. 3. Milton seems 
to have his first efforts as a writer poorly appreciated. 4. Endeavor in all 
ways and at all times to properly conduct yourself. 5. Each hoped to have 
received the reward to which they considered himself to be entitled. 6. 
Peace is not established throughout the world, and is not likely to yet. 
7. The clerk was to blame for the loss of the document. 8. It was im- 
possible to clearly distinguish the objects at so great a distance. 9. The 
hunter was heard say that he would dare any one mount the wild horse 
who he had captured. 10. The prisoner felt himself be deserving of the 
punishment inflicted upon him. 11. I wished to have gone with my friends 
into the country, but I was forbidden to. 

Exercise II. — Parse the infinitives in the following sentences: — 

Model 1. — "He hastened to leave the country." 

To leave. — Hastened to leave country. — "To leave" is a transitive verb, 
irregular (leave, left, left) ; it is in the active voice, infinitive mode, present 
tense, and depends upon the verb hastened, which it completes in meaning, 
according to Rule XIII., "A verb in the infinitive mode, etc." 

2. — "Love to study because of the pleasure which it affords." 

To study. — Love to study. — "To study" is an intransitive verb, regular, 
(study, studied, studied) ; in the infinitive mode, present tense ; it is used as a 
noun in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender; in the 
objective case, being the object of the action asserted by the verb love, 
according to Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun which is the object, etc." 

3. — "He was, so to speak, a miracle of learning." 

To s'peak. — "To speak" is an intransitive verb, irregular (speak, spoke, 
spoken), and is in the infinitive mode, present tense; it is used independently 
according to Note under Rule XIII., "An infinitive is sometimes used, etc." 

4. — "He knows better than to disobey his parents." 

To disobey. — Than to disobey parents. — "To disobey" is a trans, verb, 
reg. (disobey, disobeyed, disobeyed) ; it is in the active voice, infinitive mode, 
present tense, and depends upon the conjunction than, which it completes 
in meaning, according to Rule XIII., "A verb, etc." 

1. In summer, nature seems to smile with gladness. 2. It is sometimes 
difficult to determine whether an act is right or wrong, until the motive is 
known. 3. Learn to labor, and to wait. 4. He has never learned to com- 
mand, who has not also learned to obey. 5. To enjoy the blessings of peace, 
was the ardent wish of the people. 6. To read, to write, and to cipher, are 
generally considered three all-important objects. 7. Government, to ful- 
fill the purposes for which it is established, should protect the rights of all. 



166 RULE XIV.— PARTICIPLES— NOTES. 

8. To become a ruler is not in the power of every one, yet it is possible for 
all to become good men, and useful citizens. 9. It does little good to preach 
virtue and temperance unless precept is enforced by example. 10. To be 
reproved by a wise man is better than to be praised by a fool. 



Rule XIV. — Participles. 

A participle relates to the noun or the pronoun which 
it describes or limits. 

NOTES. 

1. A participle may be used as a noun in the nominative or in the 
objective case; as, "Reading good books promotes knowledge." — "The 
morals are corrupted by reading bad books." 

A participle used as a noun may govern the objective case, and at 
the same time may be qualified in the same manner as a verb; as, "His 
leaving the city so suddenly occasioned much surprise." 

2. A participle sometimes becomes a noun simply; as, "Running 
and wrestling were favorite sports among the Greeks." 

In such instances it may be qualified by an adjective, but not by an 
adverb; as, "Rapid running depends upon much training." 

3. A participle preceded by an article or an adjective is a noun simply, 
and is generally followed by the preposition of to govern an objective 
following; as, "That reading of the play was much admired." 

A participle \i>fA as a noun may he preceded by a possessive with- 
out being followed by «/; as, "Mary's playing the piece was not ex- 
pected." — "His crossing the swollen stream, was a foolish act." 

If the active participle of a transitive verb is used as a noun, it is 
not preceded by an article unless it is followed by of; nor is it followed 
by of unless it is preceded by an article, an adjective, or a possessive: 
thus, "By the learning grammar our language is improved," should 
be, "By the learning of grammar, etc.," or, "By hunting grammar, 
etc." 

The meaning is usually the same when the article and of or the 
adjective and of are used, as when they are omitted, — although such 
is not always the case, as is apparent in the following sentences: " He 
was ruined by burning his house."— "lie was mined by the burning of 
his house." 



RULE XIV.— NOTES— EXERCISES. 167 

4. A participle is sometimes used as an adjective, and should be 
so parsed; as, "The sound of falling waters was heard." 

5. A participle may sometimes be used abstractly after a verb in 
the infinitive mode; that is, without relating to any word; as, "To be 
always working would be ruinous to health." 

6. A participle may have a noun or a pronoun after it used inde- 
pendently; as, "His being called a wit did not make him one." 

7. The perfect participle, and not the past tense, should be used 
with the auxiliaries have and be; as, "He has gone to travel in Europe, 
— not, "He has went, etc." 

8. The perfect participle should never be used instead of the past 
tense to express simply past time: thus, "James seen him do it," should 
be, "James saw him do it." — "He begun [began] to read." 

9. A participle should not be used if the meaning can be more 
elegantly expressed by the use of a verb in the infinitive mode, or of 
an equivalent expression: thus, "Exciting hopes which can not be 
fulfilled, is wrong," should be, "To excite hopes, etc." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model 1. — "By the telling the truth at all times, we may be trusted." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the article the is used before the par- 
ticiple telling, which is used as a noun, and is not followed by of; but, ac- 
cording to Note under Rule XIV., "If the active participle of a transitive 
verb is used as a noun, etc." Therefore the should be omitted, and the sen- 
tence should be, "By telling the truth at all times, etc." 

2. — "James has saw the whole transaction." 

This sentence is incorrect, because saw, which is the past tense of the verb 
to see, is used instead of the perf . part, after the auxiliary have; but, accord- 
ing to Note under Rule XIV., "The perfect participle, etc." Therefore 
saw should be seen, and the sentence should be, "James has seen, etc." 

1. Reading poetry properly requires a knowledge of the author's mean- 
ing. 2. The pupil who was a striking of his class-mate, deserved the pun- 
ishment which was gave him. 3. The audience expressed the pleasure 
which they experienced in hearing of the lecturer. 4. The travelers had 
not proceeded far before they were overtook by a party of horsemen. 5. 
It is thought he would have went, had he been invited. 6. The English 
language is spoke in nearly all parts of the world. 7. Arnold done an act 
which will forever leave a blot upon his name. 8. John thinks he seen his 
friends pass by. 9. I would have wrote sooner, but the writing letters is 
always unpleasant to me. 10. After he had drank freely of cold water he 
felt better. 11. Some one has took from me all the materials which I had 



168 RULE XIV.— EXERCISES. 

for writing of the essay. 12. The teacher forbid them playing during the time 
set apart for the studying their lessons. 13. The work assigned would have 
been began but for an unexpected accident. 14. The using the rod too 
frequently leads to degrading of the mind. 15. He might have chose a pro- 
fession which would be more pleasant to him. 16. No one done more for 
the rehef of the suffering than he. 17. True courage is sometimes shown 
by suffering of ills without complaining. IS. A bridge was formed by a 
tree which had fell across the ravine. 19. Having written of his letters, 
he commenced a writing of Ins composition. 20. Although he done noth- 
ing criminal, yet his conduct was blameworthy. 

Exercise II. — Parse the participles, the participial nouns, and the par- 
ticipial adjectives in the following sentences: — 

Model 1. — "An opportunity neglected never returns." 
Neglected. — Opportunity neglected. — "Neglected" is the perfect participle 
of the passive voice of the trans., regular verb to neglect (imp. being neglected, 
perf . neglected, preperf . having been 7icglcctcd) ; it relates to the noun oppor- 
tunity, which it describes, according to Rule XIV., "A participle, etc." 
2. — "By observing the faults of others, we may avoiel similar ones." 
Observing. — By observing faults. — "Observing" is the imperf. part, of the 
active voice of the trans., reg. verb to observe (imp. observing, perf. observed, 
preperf. having obseri-ed) ; it is used as a noun in the singular number, third 
person, and of the neuter gender, — in the objective case, being the object 
of the relation denoted by the preposition by, according to Rule IV., "A 
noun or a pronoun which is the object of an action, etc." 
3. — "Reading is a very important branch of knowledge" 
Reading. — Reading is.— "Reading" is a participial noun, in the singular 
number, third person, ami of the neuter gender; it is in the nominative case, 
being the subject of the finite verb is, according to Rule I., "A noun or a 
pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, is in the nominative case." 
4. — "The earth is clothed in living beauty." 

Living. — Laving beauty. — "Living" is the imperfeel participle of the in- 
transitive', regular verb /,. lir, (imperf. living, perf. lived, preperf. having 
lived); it is used as an adjective: it can not be compared; — it relates to the 
noun beauty, which it describes, according to Rule X., "An adjective, etc." 
">. — "To be always finding fault is a contemptible trait." 
Finding.— To /» finding fault. — "Finding" is the imp. participle of the 
active voice of the transitive irregular verb to find (imp. finding, perfect, 
{nun, I. preperf. Inning found); it is \ised abstractly after the infinitive to be, 
according to Note under Rule .MY.. "A participle may sometimes, etc." 

1. Having once lost the good opinion of our friends, it is difficult for us to 
reclaim it. 2. The king never surrendered his claim to the hunting grounds 
of the nobles. 3. It is our understanding which places US above the brute 
creation. 4. Thinking he now had an opportunity for securing possession 
of the coveted territory, he manhed his troops across the borders. 5. Ilie 
continual dropping of water will wear even stones. G. Water continually 



RULE XV.— ADVERBS— NOTES. 169 

dropping wears even stones. 7. The horse's running was greatly admired. 
8. The horse running, fell, and was badly injured by striking his head upon 
a projecting stone. 9. By the teaching of others our knowledge is increased. 
10. By teaching others we are likely to increase our own knowledge. 

For Freedom's battle, once begun, 
Bequeathed by bleeding sire to son, 
Though baffled oft, is ever won. 

Canst thou minister to a mind diseased; 
Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow ; 
Raze out the written troubles of the brain? 



Rule XV.— Adverbs. 

. An adverb relates to the verb, the adjective, or the other 
adverb, which it qualifies. 

NOTES. 

1 . A conjunctive adverb relates to the verb in its own clause and con- 
nects its clause with the word that the clause modifies; as, "Whither 
thou goest, I will go. — "Think before you speak." 

2. An adverb sometimes relates to a preposition and its object; as, 
"Just before us lay the city." — "He perished almost in sight of land." 
— "The ball struck exactly in the centre." 

An adverb may relate to a clause or to a sentence; as, "Truly this 
man was the Son of God." 

Certain adverbs seem also to relate partially to nouns or to pro- 
nouns; as, "We, not you, are wrong." — "Even the detective was de- 
ceived." 

In all such instances, however, the adverbs should be parsed as 
qualifying the verb. 

3. An adverb is sometimes used independently; as, "Indeed, I was 
not aware of the change." — "Yea, the earth itself shall pass away." 
— "Ay! Death shall feed upon his form." 

4. The adverbs yes, yea, no, nay, and amen, in answer to questions, 
may be regarded as the equivalents of propositions; they then qualify 
no verb; as, "Will you accept my terms? No." 

5. The adverb there, occurring at or near the beginning of a sen- 



170 RULE XV.— NOTES. 

tence, does not always imply place, but is often a mere expletive used 
to avoid abruptness; as, "There is a land of pure delight." 

6. An adverb sometimes relates to a verb which is not mentioned, 
but which may be readily suggested by the adverb used; as, "Out, 
brief candle!" — "Away, slight man!" 

7. An adverb should not be used as an adjective, nor should it ever 
be employed to denote quality: thus, "The alone idea," — "The soonest 
moment," etc., should be, "The sole idea," — "The earliest moment," 
etc.; "She looks sweetly," — "It tastes bitterly," etc., should be, "She 
looks siveet," — "It tastes bitter," etc. 

8. The adverb ever is sometimes incorrectly used for never; as, "It 
rarely or ever [never] snows in this latitude." 

9. No, as an adverb, can qualify comparatives only; as, "The task 
no longer appeared difficult." Therefore no should never be used 
after or to qualify a verb understood: thus, "Will you go, or not" 
should be, "Will you go, or (will you) not (go)?" 

10. The adverb how should not be placed before the conjunction 
that; nor should as, how, or as how, be used for that: thus, " I am not 
sure hoiv (or, as how) I can come," should be, "I am not sure that I 
can come." 

11. In the use of the adverbs when and where, care should be taken 
not to employ them improperly for the pronoun which and its accom- 
panying words: thus, "The hour when the train was due," should be, 
"The hour in (or at) which, etc." — "There was no family where he 
was not welcome," should Ik-. "There was no family in which, etc." 

12. The adverbs here, there, and where, which primarily denote 
position, may he used in common discourse for hither, thither, and 
whither, after verbs implying motion, hut exactness requires the use 
of the latter adverbs; as, "Where are you going?"— hut more properly, 
"Whither are you going?" 

13. The preposition from is sometimes inelegantly used hefore the 
adverbs hence, thence, and whence, which, in meaning, imply this prep- 
osition: thus, "From whence cometh my help?" should be, "Whence 
cometh my help?" 

So also from here, from there, etc., are incorrectly used for from this 
place, etc. 

Since then, till now, till then, and similar expressions, are allowable, 
but are not elegant. 



RULE XV.— NOTES— EXERCISES. 171 

In general, an adverb should not be used as the object of a prep- 
osition. If, however, it is so used, the two words must be regarded 
as forming a complex adverb, and must be parsed as such. 

14. Two negatives should not be used in the same proposition if 
a negation is intended; as, "He can not do any harm," not "He can 
not do no harm." 

A negative, however, may be repeated for the sake of emphasis; as, 
"We will never, never, never, lay down our arms." 

When affirmation is intended, not may be used properly, and with 
pleasing effect, to qualify an adjective or an adverb having a negative 
prefix, such as dis, in, im, un, etc.: thus, "I am not indisposed to favor 
you," means, "I am disposed to favor you." 

15. Adverbs should be placed near the words which they qualify. 
In general, an adverb precedes the adjective or the adverb which it 
qualifies, — and follows the verb, or is placed between the verb and 
its auxiliary; as, "He is truly happy." — "A very carefully written 
book." — "He fought nobly, and he was nobly rewarded." 

An adverb should never be placed between the auxiliary to and the 
remainder of the infinitive; "To not know," should be, "Not to know." 

The improper position of the adverbs chiefly, merely, only, (not) 
only, solely, etc., often renders the meaning ambiguous. These should 
be placed next to the words which they qualify: thus, "Not only he 
has forfeited all right to our esteem, but he also deserves severe pun- 
ishment," should be, "He has not only forfeited, etc." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model 1. — "How pleasantly this breeze feels." 

This sentence is incorrect, because pleasantly, which is an adverb, is used 
as an adjective to describe the noun breeze; but, according to Note under 
Rule XV., "An adverb should not be used, etc." Therefore pleasantly 
should be pleasant, and the sentence should be, "How pleasant this breeze 
feels." 

2. — "The ship is soon expected to arrive." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the adverb soon is placed so as to 
qualify the verb is expected, when, properly, it should qualify the infinitive 
to arrive; but, according to Note under Rule XV., "Adverbs should be 
placed near the words which they qualify, etc." Therefore the sentence 
should be, "The ship is expected to arrive soon." 

1. That dress looks prettily upon her. 2. During his fits of melancholy 
he felt that everybody was his enemy very often. 3. Where did you come 



172 RULE XVI.— PREPOSITIONS— NOTES. 

from here? 4. Ambition was the alone motive of his action. 5. The 
ancients were undecided whether suicide was a crime or no. 6. The mer- 
chant went to Boston and from thence sailed for Liverpool. 7. The trial 
of Warren Hastings, where Sheridan spoke so eloquently, will long be re- 
membered. 8. He could never after aU his search find nothing. 9. The 
persevering and energetic man will be successful usually. 10. Being de- 
layed, I very near missed the train. 11. I do not admire neither your 
words nor your acts. 12. Willing or no, you must go with me. 13. I did 
not say nothing at all, sir. 14. The explosion was previously to the fire. 
15. They arrived safety notwithstanding all their risks. 16. From whence 
he came and where he is going to, I know not. 17. The chair where he usually 
sat still remained. 18. These opportunities are of seldom occurrence. 19. 
The then king was George IV. 20. The lark mountain seemed more hugely 
than ever. 21. How sweetly this rose smells! 22. Frank seldom or ever 
fails to perfectly recite. 23. Since when have you been engaged in this 
establishment? 

Exercise II. — Parse the adverbs in the following sentences: — 

Model. — "Tread softly on this hallowed ground." 

Softly. — Tread softly. — "Softly" is an adverb of manner; — it can be com- 
pared (pos. softly, comp. more softly, sup. most softly) ; — it is in the positive 
degree, and relates to the verb tread, which it qualifies, according to Rule 
XV., "An adverb relates, etc." 

1. Did Charles act wisely in deciding so speedily? 2. Man wants but 
little here below. 3. Be scrupulously neat at all times. 4. How various 
his employments, whom the world calls idle. 5. Sometimes in distant 
lands I stray. 6. A man's genius is always, at the beginning of his life, 
as much unknown to himself as to others. 7. Then up with the flag and 
let it wave proudly in every breeze, however gentle, however fierce. 8. 
These men that have turned the world upside down, have come hither 
also. 9. Peradventure he is asleep, and must be awakened. 10. Surely, 
you will not think of starting in so violent a storm? Indeed, you must 
wait awhile. 

Rule XVI. — Prepositions. 
A preposition shows the relation of the noun or the 
pronoun which follows it, and some preceding word. 

The preposition with the noun or pronoun which follows it forms a 
prepositional phrase. The phrase so formed modifies "some preceding 

woril." 

NOTES. 

1. A preposition may show the relation of a participle, a verb in 
the infinitive mode, a phrase, or a clause, following it, to some pre- 



RULE XVI.— NOTES. 173 

ceding word; as, "He took delight in doing good." — "The steamer 
is about to sail." — "He was eager for the conflict to begin." — "Success 
depends upon how you improve your opportunities." 

The use of the preposition for, however, before a verb in the infinitive 
mode, is obsolete; as, "But what went ye out for to see?" 

2. Complex prepositions show relation between terms in the same 
manner as simple or compound; as, "This book was selected from 
among them all." — "Because of these things cometh the wrath of God. 

3. In certain phrases called prepositional, such as in particular, 
in short, in vain, to the right, etc., the subsequent term is omitted, 
but it must be supplied in parsing; as, "He sued in vain (words) for 
mercy." 

Sometimes when such phrases as the preceding and some others are 
used independently at the beginning of sentences, the preposition 
has no antecedent term of relation mentioned; as, "In a word, I know 
nothing about the matter." 

In parsing, some independent infinitive or participle may be sup- 
plied; such as, to speak, speaking, etc. 

The antecedent term is not mentioned in exclamatory sentences 
like the following: "O for a lodge in some vast wilderness!" It may 
be supplied in parsing: thus, "0 7 long for, etc." 

4. Two prepositions connected by a conjunction may have the 
same object; as, "Did he vote for or against the measure?" — 
"Boats pass to and from the city daily." 

When, however, the prepositions are separated by several inter- 
vening words or phrases, it is often better to use the noun after the 
first preposition only, and to employ a pronoun after the second: thus, 
"I will give heed to, and be guided by, your advice," — but better, "I 
will give heed to your advice, and be guided by it." 

5. The preposition should not be omitted except where usage has 
sanctioned its omission: thus, "The subject is worthy your attention," 
should be, "The subject is worthy of, etc." — "He fled the country"; 
— supply from. 

The preposition to or unto is commonly omitted after the adjectives 
or the adverbs like, near, and nigh; as, "The son is like (adj.) his 
father." — "The house is near (adj.) the lake." — "He is nigh (adj.) 
his end." — "The Indians came near (adv.) the fort." 

The preposition is frequently omitted after verbs of giving, pro- 



174 RULE XVI.— NOTES. 

curing, etc.; as, "He gave (to) me a book." — "Show (to) me a Chris- 
tian, and I will show (to) you a man." — "Procure (for) him a ticket." 

The preposition is usually omitted before a term denoting time or 
measure; as, "He lived many years after that event." — "He traveled 
ten miles." — "Three yards long." — "Six feet high," etc. 

The prepositions to be supplied in parsing may be by, for, during, 
in, through, etc. 

The preposition of is often improperly placed before a term denoting 
time or measure, which is already the object of relation denoted by 
some preposition not mentioned. 

Thus, the sentence, "He was a lad of nine years old," should be, 
"He was a lad (by) nine years old," or " — of nine years of age." So 
also, "It was a stream of sixty yards wide," should be, "It was a stream 
(by) sixty yards wide," or, " — of sixty yards in width." 

<S. The place of the preposition should be such as will clearly show 
what terms are in relation: thus, "The two parts arc united under the 
Thames by a tunnel," should be, "The two parts are united by a tunnel 
under the Thames." 

In prose, a preposition precedes the term which is the object of its 
relation; — except the relative pronoun that, which is always placed 
before the preposition, being separated from it by intervening words; 
as, " It is the same person ///*// I wrote to yon about." 

Whom, which, and what are also sometimes placed before the prep- 
ositions by which they are governed,— but not elegantly; as, "Whom 
do von come from. '"-"What was he guilty off"— but better, "From 
whom do you come?" -"Of irhat was lie guilty?" 

In poetry, however, a preposition may follow its subsequent term; 
as, — 

"My father lived in Blenheim then, 
Yon little stream hard by." 

7. <':ire should be taken to use those prepositions which will correctly 
express the relations intended; as, "I have need of your assistance," 
not " — for your assistance." 

In denoting situation, or meaning within, is often improperly used 
for into, denoting entraner ; thus "He came in the room," should be 
"He came into the room." "He came into the room, and remained 
in it," is correct usage. 

Betwet >i or !>rt}i-i.rt refers to two objects or sets of objects only; — 



RULE XVI.— NOTES— EXERCISES. 



175 



among or amongst to more than two; as, "Between virtue and vice there 
is no middle path." — "Among so many candidates, but one fulfilled 
all conditions." 

The proper use of other prepositions must be learned from dic- 
tionaries, and by observation. 

Below are given a few words with their appropriate prepositions 
following: — 



Access to 

Acquaint with. 

Acquit of. 

Agreeable to. 

Angry with a person, at a thing. 

Arrive at, in, not to. 

Averse to. 

Bestow upon. 

Call on a person, at a house, for a 
thing. 

Compare with (in respect of 
quality); to (for illustration). 

Confide in (intrans.); to (trans.). 

Copy after a person ; from a thing. 

Correspond with, to. 

Die of a disease; by an instru- 
ment, or violence; for another. 

Differ with a person in opinion; 
from, in quality. 



pro- 



Different from, not to. 

Disagree with a person; to 
posal. 

Disappointed of a thing not ob- 
tained; in a thing obtained. 

Expert at (before a noun); in 
(before an active participle). 

Independently of, not on. 

Inseparable from. 

Martyr for a cause; to a disease. 

Need of. 

Partake of, in. 

Prefer, preferable, to. 

Reconcile a person to; a thing 
with. 

Rid of, not from. 

Touch at a place. 

Unite to (transitive); with (in- 
transitive). 



Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model 1. — "This supposition is very different to that." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the preposition to does not correctly 
express the relation intended between its two terms, the adjective different 
and the pronominal that; but, according to Note under Rule XVI., "Care 
should be taken to use, etc." Therefore to should be from, and the sentence 
should be, "This supposition is very different from that." 
2. — "A bridge connects the two villages across the river." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the preposition across is so placed as to 
show a relation between the two terms villages and river, whereas the proper 
terms of relation are bridge and river; but, according to Note under Rule 
XVI., "The place of the preposition, etc." Therefore the sentence should 
be, "A bridge across the river connects the two villages." 



176 RULE XVI.— EXERCISES. 

1. Profession and practice often differ widely with each other. 2. Among 
such good friends as you two are, no serious quarrel should arise. 3. A 
shallow grave of only two feet deep was hastily dug. 4. What use is this 
book to me? 5. A despatch has just been received from the seat of war of 
great importance at the Ledger Office. 6. I passed a man begging with one 
leg in the street. 7. After many years of alienation he became reconciled 
with his brother. 8. The train arrived to Pittsburg two hours from its time, 
being delayed with heavy snow drifts. 9. Give me the portion which 
belongs to me of goods. 10. The right will be sold for a moderate sum of 
retailing this article throughout the state. 11. For sale, a piano, by a 
gentleman, with richly carved rosewood legs, who is about to sail for 
Europe. 12. The affection of David towards Jonathan was very great. 
13. Such conduct is unbecoming you, who should be an example of the 
rest. 

Exercise II. — Parse the prepositions in the following sentences: — 

Model 1. — "I passed several days in rambling about the country." 

In. — Passed in rambling. — "In" is a simple preposition; it is used before 
the imperfect participle rambling, used as a noun, to show its relation to the 
verb passed, according to Note under Rule XVI., "A preposition may show 
the relation of a participle, etc." 

2. — About. — Rambling about country. — "About" is a compound preposi- 
tion; it is used before the noun country to show its relation to the imperfect 
participle rambling used as a noun, according to Rule XVI., "A preposition 
show-;, etc." 

3. — "A serpent glided from beneath the log." 

From beneath. — Glided from beneath log. — "From beneath" is a complex 
preposition; it is used before the noun /<»/ 1<> show its relation to the verb 
glided, according to Note under Rule XVI., "Complex prepositions show, 
etc." 

4. — "Keep to the right as the law directs." 

To. — Keep to {hand). — "To" is. etc.; it is used before the noun hand (not 
mentioned) t<> show its relation to the verb keep, according to Rule XVI., 
"A preposition shows the relation, etc." 

1. The stream was distant from us about a mile. 2. Flattery is at war 
with the very soul of childhood. 3. The atmosphere rises above us with its 
cathedral dome arching towards the heavens. It floats around us like that 
grand image which the Apostle John saw in his vision, — " A soa of glass like 

UntO Crystals." 1. He had indeed left none his like behind him. 5. As to 
style. Demosthenes was his favorite author among the ancients; among the 
English, Bolingbroke and Barrow. 6. Keep to t he right, and you will be safe. 
7. You will seek in vain for a bitter. S. () for a cup of cold water now! 9. 
The whistling of the wind through the cordage sounded like funeral wait- 
ings. 



RULE XVII. -CONJUNCTIONS— NOTES. 177 



Rule XVII. — Conjunctions. 

A conjunction connects the words, the parts of a sen- 
tence, or the sentences, between which it is placed. 



1. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, members, or com- 
plete and distinct sentences; — 

1. Words; as, "The moon and the planets shine by reflected light." 
A sentence containing connected words is usually equivalent to a 

compound sentence containing as many sentences or propositions as 
there are words connected: thus, "James, Henry, and William came," 
is equivalent to "James came, Henry came, and William came." 

Sentences like the following can not be changed to others in which 
the words will belong to separate propositions; as, "Four and two 
make six." — "The period of man's life is three score years and ten." 

II. Phrases; as, "He strove with all his powers, and to a noble end.'' 

III. Clauses; as, "Experiments prove that water is compressible." 
— "Correct me if I am wrong." 

IV. Members; as, "It was time to start, but our guide had not ap- 
peared." 

V. Fidl and distinct sentences; as, "The air also has its influence 
upon water, etc. But, of all agencies, fire is the most powerful, etc." 

2. Conjunctive adverbs connect their clauses with the words which 
the clauses modify; as, "While the bridegroom tarried, they all 
slumbered." — "They received me kindly when I entered." 

3. The conjunction that sometimes merely introduces a clause 
which is the subject of a finite verb in the principal part of the sen- 
tence; as "That you have wronged me, doth appear in this." The 
meaning is, "(It) doth appear in this that you have wronged me." 

4. Words connected by conjunctions are always of the same class 
(nouns and pronouns being regarded as one class), and are in the 
same construction; as, "Mary and she study from the same book." 
— "The ball struck him and me." — "The building is large and con- 
venient." — "The city was attacked, and (was) captured." 

5. Verbs connected by one or more conjunctions may have the 
same subject if they agree in form, voice, mode, and tense; as, "He 

12 



178 RULE XVII.— NOTES. 

might have come and (might have) gone without my knowledge." — 
"He was honored and (was) loved by all." 

Verbs connected require a subject mentioned for each, if they differ 
in form, if a contrast is made, or if a strong emphasis is intended: 
thus, "He has been reproved and will do better in the future," should 
be, "He has been reproved and he will do better in the future," be- 
cause the two verbs differ in voice and tense. "He came, but (he) did 
not remain long." 

By the use of the subject before each verb, the verbs are made to 
belong to separate members. 

6. When two connected parts of a sentence have a common refer- 
ence to a third part, they should be made to accord with that part, 
and with each other, in construction: thus, "He did as much, perhaps 
more, for the cause than any other man," should be, "He did as much 
for the cause as any other man, perhaps more." 

7. Than is used to connect a clause with a preceding clause con- 
taining an adjective or an adverb in the comparative degree, or con- 
taining else, other, otherwise, or rather; as, "It is more blessed to give 
than (it is blessed) to receive." — "How could 1 do else than obey?" 

X. There is generally an ellipsis in the clause connected with a pre- 
ceding clause by as or than. In supplying the ellipsis, the second 
clause should correspond in construction to the first; as, "He is farther 
advanced than I (am advanced)."— "He is as good as his word (is 
good)." 

In consequence of the ellipsis, than is sometimes incorrectly followed 
by a pronoun in the objective case; as, "Than whom [who sat], Satan 
except, none higher sat."— "They suffered more than us [we suffered]." 

'.I. As should not be used for who, whom, or which, or for that (whether 
a conj. or a relative): thus, "I know the man as witnessed the affair," 
should l>e, " I know the man who, etc." -"He said as he would come," 
should be, "He said that he would come." 

By ellipsis, as seems to have the force of a relative pronoun after 
such, as main/, so many, as much, etc.; as, "He reads such books as 
he <an get." 

It is better to supply the ellipsis and to parse as as a conjunction: 
thus, "He reads such books as (those are which) he can get." 

„-i* is sometimes used simply to conned words which are in apposi- 
tion; as, "//r appeared in the play as Hamlet." 



RULE XVII.— NOTES— EXERCISES. 179 

10. After the verbs doubt, fear, etc., whether should not be used 
for if; — nor should but, but that, or lest, be used for that: thus, "I doubt 
whether he will come to-morrow," should be, "I doubt if, etc.;" — 
"He was afraid lest you would fail," should be, "He was afraid that 
you would fail." 

11. When words or clauses are connected by correlatives, care must 
be taken to use those which correspond with each other: thus, 

Both — and; as, "Observe the rules both here and elsewhere." 

Either — or; as, "He is either foolish or insane." 

Neither — nor; as, " He would neither assent nor deny." 

Not only — but also; as, "Not only safety, but also justice, required 

his death." 

Though — yet; as, " Though mild in manner, yet firm in principle." 
Whether — or; as, "He could not decide whether to go or to remain." 
As (adv.) — as (conj.) express equality when used with an adjec- 
tive or an adverb; as, "The accomplice is as bad as the thief." 
As (conj.) — so (conj.) express equality or proportion when used 

with two verbs; as, "As cold water (is) to the thirsty soul, so is good 

news from a far country." 

So (adv.) — as (conj.) deny equality when used with an adjective 

or an adverb; as, "You were not so fortunate as I." 

So (adv.) — as (conj.) with an adjective or an adverb express a 

limited comparison; as, "Be so kind as to read this letter." 

So (adv.) — that (conj.) express a consequence when followed by 

a finite verb; as, "So live, that you may not fear to die." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

Model 1. — "He had little more money but that earned by his labor." 

This sentence is incorrect, because but is improperly used for than after 
the comparative more; but, according to Note under Rule XVII., "Than 
is used to connect, etc." Therefore but should be than, and the sentence 
should be, "He had little more money than that earned by his labor." 

2. — "He is not nearly as energetic as his friend." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the adverb as is used as the correlative 
of as to deny equality; but, according to Note under Rule XVII., "When 
words or clauses are connected, etc. So (adv.) — as (conj.) deny equality 
when used with an adjective or an adverb." Therefore as should be so, 
and the sentence should be, "He is not nearly so energetic as his friend." 

3. — "He has been in no high position, yet commands the respect of all." 

This sentence is incorrect, because has been and commands, which are con- 



180 RULE XVII.— EXERCISES. 

nected by the conjunction yet, have but one nominative mentioned, although 
they differ in form; but, according to Note under Rule XVII., "Verbs con- 
nected require a subject mentioned for each, if they differ, etc." Therefore 
he should be repeated before the verb commands, and the sentence should 
be, "He has been in no high position, yet he commands the respect of all." 

1. Neither threats or entreaties was sufficient to turn him from his pur- 
pose. 2. The pupils read well, but will not stud}' diligent, nor listen attent- 
ively to explanations. 3. He was much better acquainted with that sec- 
tion of the countrj' nor any of his companions. 4. He has not fulfilled his 
engagement with that promptness as was expected. 5. I always have and 
always shall be of the opinion that the fault was his only. 6. Wisdom and 
honesty is as valuable, and even more so, as choice silver. 7. These books 
are equal, if not better, than those. 8. Savages have little else but the 
rudest implements for cultivation. 9. The boldness of the ignorant is as 
great, and greater, than that of the wise. 10. Who is so thoughtless that dare 
attempt this act ? 11. The sentence is not as clearly expressed as it should be. 

Exercise II. — Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences: — 

Model 1. — "James reads and writes." 

,l//</. — Reads and writes. — "And" is a conjunction, and connects the two 
verbs reads and writes, between which it is placed, according to Rule XVII. 
"A conjunction connects, etc." 

2. — "Government is necessary to ensure safely and to establish justice." 

Ami. — To ensure safety and to establish justice. — "And" is a conjunction, 
and connects the two phrases, to ensun safety and to establish justice, be- 
tween which it is placed, according to Rule XVII. 

3. — "If necessary, 1 will accompany you." 

//. — / will accompany you if (it is) necessary. — "If" is a conjunction, and 
connects the two parts of the sentence. / will accompany you and (it is) 
necessary, between which it is placed, according to Rule XVII. 

4. — "Both the time and the occasion were unsuitable." 

Both. — Both time (and) occasion. — "Moth" is the correlative of and, and 
with and connects the two nouns time and occasion, according to Rule XVII. 

And. — (Both) time and occasion. — "Ami" is the correlative of both, and 
with it connects the two nouns. Hun and occasion, according to Rule XVII. 

1. The hills, as in the old scriptures they ;ue called, are, indeed, cver- 

lasting. '_'. As we still Feel in our nerves the motion of the sea after we have 

planted our feet on the firm land, so the crests and hollows of the solid 
globe continue to make themselves felt in our mind. 3. We grow to love 

a country as we grow to love a person, because we have there exercised 

our faculty of loving. 4. Every tree and every (lower has something more 
than its own beauty, whether it grows in the shadow, or in the light of the 
glorious mountains. .">. Since the majority of persons act from impulse 
much more than from principle, men are neither so pood nor so bad as we 
are apt to think them. 6. Education elevates the nature not only of him 
who hath it, but also of those with whom he associates. 



RULE XVI II.— IN TERJEC TIONS— GENERA L RULE. 1 81 

Rule XVIII. — Interjections. 

An interjection has no grammatical dependence upon 
any other word. 

NOTES. 

1. An interjection may be followed by a pronoun in the possessive 
or in the objective case; as, "O my .'" — "Ah me !" In such expressions 
the case of the pronoun is determined by some word understood: thus, 
"O my fate!" — "Ah! pity me." 

2. Another part of speech seems sometimes to be used as an inter- 
jection; as, "Strange!" — "Back ! false fugitive ! " Such expressions 
are usually elliptical: thus, "(It is) strange!" — "(Go) back! false 
fugitive !" 

Exercise. — Parse the interjections in the following sentences: — 

Model. — "O that those lips had language!" 

O. — "O" is an interjection; it has no dependence upon any other word, 
according to Rule XVIII., "An interjection has, etc." 

1. Ah! what a sight was this! 2. Hark! hark! the lark at heaven's gate 
sings. 3. What! wouldst thou have a serpent sting thee twice? 4. Oh! 
sailor-boy, peace to thy soul. 5. Ha ! laughest thou, Lochiel, my vision to 
scorn? 6. O that I had wings like a dove! 

General Rule. 

In the expression of thought, those forms and usages 
of language should be employed which will best convey 
the meaning intended. 

NOTES. 

1. Every verb should be used with its appropriate form and mean- 
ing: thus, "He set motionless," should be, "He sat motionless;" — 
"The meadows were overflown {overflowed] for miles." 

The verbs most frequently misused one for another, are dare (in- 
trans.), for dare (trans.); flee, for fly; lay, for lie; learn, for teach; raise, 
for rise; set, for sit; and the auxiliary shall, for will. 

2. In the arrangement of verbs in connected clauses, the proper 
relation of time should be observed: thus, "The train started before 



182 GENERAL RULE— NOTES— EXERCISES. 

we arrived," should be, "The train had started before we arrived;" 
—"The boat started after we had arrived," — not, "The boat started 
after we arrived." 

Care should be taken to use that tense of every verb which will 
denote accurately the relative time of an action, a being, or a state: 
thus, "I said, last week, that the event would happen," — not, "I have 
said, etc.;" — "Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life," 
should be, " — that ye may have life." 

3. A verb in the subjunctive mode, present tense, should be used 
to express a future contingency; as, "Though he slay me, yet will I 
trust in him." — "If it rain to-morrow, I will remain at home." 

A verb in the subjunctive mode, past tense, is used to express doubt, 
uncertainty, or a supposition, in which definite time is not expressed; 
as, "If the decision were just, I would not complain." 

Lest and that succeeding the imperative mode, should be followed 
by a verb in the subjunctive mode; as, "Govern well thy appetite, 
lest sin surprise thee." 

When the contingency is regarded as certain, or as probable, a verb 
in the indicative mode is used; as, "If the decision was just, there 
was no cause of complaint." — "If it rains, do not go now." 

4. Such expressions as had rather, had better, had have, had like, 
had ought in, had as lief, though in common use, are ungrammatical, 
and should be avoided: thus, "1 had like to have missed the chance," 
should be, "I almost missed the chance." 

Exercise. — Correct the Following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction: — 

MODI L 1. — "II fficers appointed to enforce the law were attacked and 

compelled to By." 

This sentence is u rrect, because the verb to ft;/, meaning to soar (as 

with wings), is used instead of t" flee, meaning t<> hasten (as from 
danger); but, according to Note under General Rule, "Every verb should 
be used, etc." Therefore ////should be flee, and the sentence should be, 
"The officers appointed to enforce the law were attacked and compelled 
to flee." 

2. — "When Bayard Taylor returned to America, he visited nearly all the 
countries in the < >ld World." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb visited expresses simply past 
time; but. according to Note under General Rule, "In the arrangement of 
Verbs in connected clauses, etc." Therefore visited, which is t he past tense 
of the verb to visit, should be had visited, the past perfect tense, which ex- 



GENERAL RULE— EXERCISES— FIGURES OF SPEECH. 183 

presses past time previous to some other past time ; and the sentence should 
be, "When Bayard Taylor returned to America, he had visited, etc." 

3. — "I had as lief not be, as live to be, etc." 

This sentence is incorrect (or inelegant), because the auxiliary had is un- 
grammatically used as- the sign of the past tense of the verb to be in the 
potential mode. But, according to Notes under General Rule, "Every 
verb should be used, etc." and "Such expressions as had rather, etc." 
Therefore had should be would, and the sentence should be, "I would as 
lief (or willingly) not be, as live to be, etc." 

4. — "A robbery or a theft is the same in principle, but not in magnitude." 

This sentence is grammatically correct, but it does not express the mean- 
ing intended, because a separation or choice is denoted by the use of the 
conjunction or, while the idea of addition or of similarity is suggested by 
the adjective same; but, according to General Rule, "In the expression of 
thought, etc." The meaning would be better exjjressed by the use of and 
for or, and by changing is to are to agree with its two nominatives, the 
nouns robbery and theft; and the sentence may be, "A robbery and a theft 
are, etc." 

1. I am acquainted with all the circumstances this long time. 2. You may 
go now, but return as soon as you have finished your business. 3. The Par- 
liament had like to have been blown up by gunpowder. 4. A piece of char- 
coal or a diamond is proved, by chemical analysis, to contain the same prop- 
erties. 5. The storm increasing in violence, he dared not proceed farther. 
6. No sovereign of France was beloved ever so much as Henry IV. 7. 
The winter sat in early, and was more than usually inclement. 8. In this 
quiet nook he used frequently to set and gaze upon the landscape. 9. A 
pincers is sometimes very useful. 10. Give no more trouble than you can 
help. 11. Looking over the morning paper was seen an account of the 
damages done by the storm. 12. By laying too long in bed he lost the 
opportunity to go. 13. I should be pleased if you will accompany me. 14. 
Having gained the prize, it soon lost its value. 15. AU examples in which 
there is a single mistake must be performed anew. 16. The sun sat in a 
cloud last evening. I 7 . He stepped up to the enraged animal, and, placing 
the muzzle close to its head, every spark of life was extinguished by its 
discharge. 18. I will be lost, for nobody shall help me. 19. When shall 
you leave for the country? 

Figures of Speech. 

A Figure of Speech is an intentional departure from com- 
mon usage in the grammatical construction of a word, or 
in the application of words in order to add variety, strength, 
or beauty to language. 



184 FIGURES OF SYNTAX— FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 



Figures of Syntax. 

A Figure of Syntax is an intentional departure from com- 
mon usage in the grammatical construction of a word. 

The principal figures of syntax are two; — Ellipsis, Pleonasm. 

1 . Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to complete the sense 
and construction of other words; as, "Bring (to) me the book;" — "I 
knew (that) he would come." 

Ellipsis applies to all the parts of speech, to phrases, and to clauses. 
By ellipsis needless repetition is avoided, and language is rendered 
more pleasing and forcible. 

2. Pleonasm is the use of more words than are absolutely necessary 
to express an idea; as, "I saw it with my own eyes." — "For the Egyp- 
tians, whom ye have seen to-day, ye shall see them no more, for ever." 

Figures of Rhetoric. 

A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional departure from 
common usage in the application of words, in order to 
impart greater variety, strength, and beauty, to discourse. 

The principal figures of rhetoric arc the following:— Simile, Meta- 
phor, Allegory, Personification, Metonomy, Synecdoche, Hyperbole, 
Apostrophe, Vision, Interrogation, Exclamation, Antithesis, Climax, 
Irony, Paralipsis, and Onomatopoeia. 

Some of these figures, namely, those which apply to words only, 
are called tropes (from a Greek word meaning a turn), because the 
word is turned from its usual application. 

1. A Simile is a direct comparison, commonly shown by the use 
of as, as so, or Wee; as, "He ye wise as serpents." — "Her hair was 
lih the sunshine" "As >■(>/{! water to a thirsty soul, so is good news 
from a far country." 

2. A Metaphor is the applying of the name of one object to another 
on account <>t' Borne resemblance between them; as, "Thy word is a 
lamp unto my feet and a lii/hl unto my path." — "Nature was to him 
a closed book." 

A simile is converted into a metaphor by the omission of the term 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 185 

of comparison; on the other hand, a metaphor may become a simile 
by the use of like, etc. 

3. An Allegory is a succession of metaphors, or of sentences con- 
taining metaphorical language, the whole forming a narration of 
imaginary events, designed to exhibit and enforce some moral truth. 

Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is an extended allegory. Fables 
and parables are short allegories. 

4. Personification is a figure by which inanimate objects, or inferior 
animals, are represented as having the qualities of persons; as, "The 
raven cried to the crow, 'Avaunt, blackamoor!'" — "While bright- 
eyed Science watches round." — "Has War trod o'er them with his 
foot of fire?" 

5. Metonomy is a change of names, or the use of the name of one 
object for that of another to which the former bears some relation. 

Thus, the name of the cause is used for that of the effect, or of the 
effect for that of the cause; of the container for that of the thing con- 
tained, etc.; as, "Spare my gray hairs [old age]." — "The country [the 
people] responded to the call." — "Embroidered garments are men- 
tioned in Homer [Homer's writings]." 

6. Synecdoche is the use of the name of the whole for that of a part, 
or of the name of a part for that of the whole; as, "My son, give me 
thine heart;" — that is, "thy affections." — "Ten thousand fleets sweep 
over thee in vain." 

7. Hyperbole is a figure by which, to heighten the effect, much" 
more is asserted than can be true; as, "It is whiter than snow." — 

"That should move 
The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny." — 

"Your words, they rob the Hybla bees 
And leave them honeyless." 

8. Apostrophe is a sudden turning aside from the subject of thought 
or of discourse to address some person or thing; as, "Oh, Judgment! 
thou art fled to brutish beasts!" — "O the depth of the riches both of 
the wisdom and knowledge of God!" 

9. Vision is a figure which represents what is past, absent, or 
imaginary, as actually present; as, 

"For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight, 
And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight." 



186 RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. 

10. Interrogation is a mode of questioning, used, not to seek in- 
formation, but rather to express a strong affirmation or denial; as, 
"He that planted the ear, shall he not hear?" — "Can the fig-tree, 
my brethren, bear olive berries? either a vine, figs?" 

11. Exclamation is the sudden or unexpected expression of words 
denoting strong emotion; as, "What a piece of work is man! How 
noble in reason! How infinite in faculties!" 

12. Antithesis is the placing of opposite things, or thoughts, in 
contrast with each other, so that the difference may be more clearly 
seen; as, "Man proposes, but God disposes." — "A soft answer turneth 
away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger." 

13. Climax is the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses, so 
that there shall be gradual rising from the least to the greatest in im- 
portance; as, "They fought, they bled, they died for freedom." — 
"Days, months, years, and ages, shall circle away." 

When the arrangement is such as shows a gradual decrease in im- 
portance, the figure is called Anticlimax; as, "Now if any man build 
upon this foundation gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, stubble; 
every man's work shall be made manifest." 

14. Irony is a mode of expression by which we are understood 
really to censure what we seem to approve or defend; as, 

"For Brutus is an honorable man; 
So arc they (ill honorable men." 

15. Paralipsis, <>r Omission, is the pretended omission on the part of 
the speaker or writer of that which he, at the same time, really men- 
tions; as, "I do not speak of niv adversary's scandalous rapacity; I 
take no notice of his brutal conduct; I pass by his treachery and malice." 

](i. Onomatopoeia is a correspondence of sound with sense; as, 

''Click, dirk, goes the clock: chirk, r/ark, goes the mill." — 
"Up tlio high hill he heaves » huge round stone." 

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. 

1. Every sentence should begin with a capital letter. 

2. Every line of Poetry should begin with a capital letter. 

3. A ((notation, if it forms a sentence, should begin with 
a capital letter. 



RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. 187 

4. Proper nouns and proper adjectives should begin 
with capital letters. 

Note. — Geographical names formed by the use of a proper noun 
combined with a common noun, require the part formed by the proper 
noun only to be capitalized; as, "Mississippi river;" "Ohio river." 
Those formed by the use of two words both of which are needed to 
describe the place named require that both parts begin with capitals; 
as, "Rocky Mountains," "Atlantic City." 

5. Titles should begin with capitals; as, "Mr.," Prof., 
Dr., Esq. 

6. Words denoting the Deity and pronouns referring to 
the deity should begin with capital letters. Satan, Beelze- 
bub, etc., also begin with capital letters. This is because 
the names of the Deity and Satan are proper nouns. The 
use of capitals for the pronouns referring to Deity is author- 
ized by custom. 

7. The name of things personified should begin with 
capital letters. 

8. The names of the months and the days of the week 
should begin with capitals. The names of the seasons do 
not begin with capitals. 

9. The pronoun I and the interjection must be capital 
letters. 

10. The important words of a heading should begin 
with capital letters. 

11. The principal words in the titles of books, etc., should 
begin with capital letters. 

The principal words are generally the nouns, verbs, and 
adjectives. If other words are emphatic, they are principal 
words and are capitalized. 



188 PUNCTUATION. 



PUNCTUATION. 



Punctuation treats of the points or marks which are used 
in writing and printing. 

Marks are principally employed to divide written or printed dis- 
course into sentences, and sentences into parts, in order to render 
the meaning more intelligible. 

Marks are also employed in connection with sentences, words, let- 
ters, and figures, for other uses. 

The principal marks are the following: — 



Period, 

Interrogation Point, ? 
Exclamation Point, ! 
Colon, : 

Semicolon, ; 



Comma, , 

Dash, — 

Curves, ( ) 

Quotation Marks, " " 

Brackets, C 1 



The Period. 

The Period denotes a full stop, or the greatest degree of 
separation. 

1. A period must he placed at the end of every declara- 
tive and every imperative sentence, whether simple, com- 
plex, or compound. 

Examples. "The Doblest vengeance is to forgive." — "Do as I 
command you."— "Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy spoken 
word is master of thee." 

The members of a compound sentence may be fully separated by 
the use of the period in place of a colon or a semicolon: thus, in the last 
example:— "Of tliv unspoken word thou art master. Thy spoken 
word is master of thee." 



PUNCTUATION. 189 

2. A period must be placed at the end of every abbre- 
viated word; as, Dr. for doctor; N.Y. for New York; nom. 
for nominative. 

If the abbreviated word occurs at the close of a full sentence one 
period is sufficient to denote both the abbreviation and the end of the 
sentence; as, "Harrisburg is the capital of Penna." 

Some abbreviations have, by common usage, become words, and, 
therefore, require no period at the end of them; as, Will Shakspeare; 
Tom Moore. 

Sometimes figures are used as ordinals and have the endings th, nd, 
etc., placed after them; thus, 7th, 2nd, etc. These are not abbrevia- 
tions and do not require the periods. 

The period must be placed at the end of headings, titles, and other 
expressions, used alone and equivalent to abbreviated declarative 
sentences; as, Normal Arithmetic. — Punctuation. — Jones and Sons. 
The period is also used after figures and letters employed as figures, 
when successive facts or particulars are stated in order. Such are 
the figures used in numbering paragraphs. 

The Interrogation Point. 

The Interrogation Point denotes that a question is asked, 
and, as a separating point, marks a full or a partial stop. 

The interrogation point must be placed at the end of 
every sentence, member, or clause, which contains a com- 
plete direct question. 

Examples. — "Where did you find your book?" — "If he go, will 
you accompany him? for I must stay." — "'Am I safe now?' he eagerly 
asked." 

When several questions are contained in one sentence, and the 
meaning is not complete till the last is asked, the interrogation point 
is used only at the end; as, "Shall my neighbors be aroused, shall my 
friends be anxious, and I remain indifferent?" 

A sentence which refers to a question, without asking it, is not directly 
interrogative, and must not be closed with an in ^rogation point; as, 
"I asked him where he found his book." 



190 PUNCTUATION. 

The Exclamation Point. 

The Exclamation Point denotes that one word or more 
are used in exclamation, and, as a separating point, often 
marks a full stop. 

An exclamation point must be placed at the end of every 
sentence, member, phrase, or word, used in exclamation or 
in earnest address. 

Examples. — "Alas! what hourly dangers arise!" — "To arms! they 
come! the Greek! the Greek!" 

The exclamation point is not used immediately after interjections 
which are closely connected with other words; as, "Fie on thee!" 

is never immediately followed by an exclamation point; as, "0 
city of our God!" O should he distinguished from Oh. O is called 
the vocative O, Oh the emotional Oh. 

Emotional oh is used chiefly to denote wishing, suffering, surprise, 
or admiration, and is followed by an exclamation point or a comma; 
as, (Wishing) "Oh, that lie would cornel" (Suffering) "Oh! I am 
ruined.'' (Surprise) "Oh! look there!" (Admiration) "Oh, how beau- 
tiful!" 

The Colon. 

The Colon denotes a decree of separation less than that 
shown by the period, and greater than that indicated by 
the semicolon. 

1. A colon may be placed between the extended mem- 
bera of a compound sentence, when they are not connected 
by conjunctions mentioned, or when their parts are sepa- 
rated by semicolons and commas. 

Examples. -"In the Bible, the body is said to be more than the 
raiment, but the opinion now-a-days seems to be, that the raiment is 
more than the body: a greaj many people, it would seem, read this 
text, as they do others, Hebrew-wise, that is, backward." 

"We must L r H out of the shadow of ail object to see it; we must 
recede from it, to comprehend it; so we must compare the present 



PUNCTUATION. 191 

with all our past impressions, if we would make out the truth which 
is common to them all." 

2. A colon must be placed at the end of the expressions 
as follows, the following, thus, these, these words, etc., or of 
parts containing these or their equivalents, when they intro- 
duce a series of particulars, or a direct quotation. 

Examples. — "The means devised by man to communicate his 
thoughts and feelings are the following: gestures, inarticulate sounds, 
spoken language, and written language." 

"Mr. Webster supposes John Adams to have spoken these words: 
'Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my 
heart to this vote.'" 

In introducing a direct quotation of considerable length, the ex- 
pressions as folloivs, etc., are often omitted; as, "He arose and said: 
'Mr. Chairman, I propose, etc.'" 

The colon is less used than it was formerly, a period or a semicolon 
taking its place. 

3. Yes or No, when used to answer a question, is usually 
followed by a colon if the words following are practically 
a repetition of the question; as, "Can you solve this prob- 
lem?" "Yes: I can solve it." Some writers, however, prefer 
the semicolon, and some the comma. The latter is in the 
interest of simplicity, though there are cases where the use 
of a particular one of the three suggested is best; as, — 

"Can you do this?" "Yes: I have often done it." 

"Can you do this?" "No; for I have never learned how." 

"Will you go to school?" "No, mother, not to-day." 

When Yes or No is followed by a noun the colon is placed after the 

noun; as, "No, sir: I will not do it." — "Yes, my lords: I am ready to 

proceed." 

The Semicolon. 

The Semicolon denotes a degree of separation less than 
that shown by the colon, and greater than that indicated 
by a comma. 



192 PUNCTUATION. 

1. A semicolon must be placed between the members 
of a compound sentence when the connection is closer than 
that which would require a colon, especially when the con- 
junctions are omitted. 

Examples. — "Brutes are governed by instinct; man, by his reason- 
ing faculties." — "His confidence in the success of his enterprise was 
not the idle dream of a mere enthusiast; it was founded in reason and 
based upon science." 

^Tien the members are short and connected by conjunctions, a 
comma is usually the separating point; as, "The sword is mighty, 
but the pen is mightier." 

2. A semicolon is used in a complex sentence, to sepa- 
rate successive clauses having a common dependence upon 
one or more principal members. 

Example. — "If I have laid down my premises correctly; if I have 
reasoned clearly; if I have proved my assertions; how can you with- 
hold your assent?" 

3. A semicolon must be placed at the end of a statement 
which, without any intervening word, is followed by the 
particulars referred to, when these particulars are separated 
by commas. 

Example. — "Mankind is divided into five races; the Caucasian, 
the Mongolian, the Ethiopian, the Malay, and the American." 
Instead of the semicolon, some authors here use the colon. 

4. A semicolon must be placed before as, when it is fol- 
lowed by an illustration. 

Example.— "That often means in order that; as, 'Live virtuously, 
that VOU may die happy.'" 

The Comma. 

The Comma denotes the least degree of separation. 
It is used, in general, to set off those parts of sentences 
which, though closely connected, still need some point 



PUNCTUATION. 193 

after them to mark the pauses or interruptions in the flow 
of words. 

1. A comma is used to separate the short members of 
compound sentences, when the members are connected by 
conjunctions. 

Example.— "There was a pause of death-like stillness, and the 
bold heart of Macpherson grew faint." 

2. Co-ordinate clauses, and subordinate clauses not re- 
strictive, are generally set off by commas. 

Examples.— ■" We trusted him because he had always proven 
honest." 

Note.— Restrictive clauses or phrases must not be set off by com- 
mas from the words which they limit, unless words intervene between 
the clauses and the limited words. 

Note. — A clause is restrictive when it limits a particular word to a 
specific meaning ; as, "The boy who came was rewarded ; the other 
was not." 

Note. — A clause is non-restrictive or circumstantial when it does not 
restrict a particular word to a specific meaning ; as, " This boy, who 
is my son, came with me." 

3. Inverted (or transposed) clauses, phrases, and ad- 
juncts, must usually be set off by commas. 

Examples. — "When he came, I know not." — "Of all vices, impurity 
is one of the most detestable." 

When the connection is very close, the inverted phrase or adjunct 
is not thus set off; as, "In Rome he dwelt." 

4. Parenthetical clauses, phrases, adjuncts, and words, 
that is, those clauses, etc., which occur between other parts 
and interrupt the connection, must be set off by commas. 

Examples. — "The clergy, as it has been before remarked, were the 
most intelligent and wealthy portion of the population." — "We may, 
generally speaking, depend upon this rule." — "This movement was, 
without doubt, demanded by public opinion." — "I shall, nevertheless, 
make good my promise." 

13 



194 PUNCTUATION. 

Qualifying phrases and adjuncts, neither inverted nor parenthetical, 
may be set off by commas, when not very closely connected, for the 
sake of prominence or emphasis; as, "These seamen had become 
habituated to the storms of the ocean, by battling tempests in the 
Northern seas around Iceland, in their yearly fishing excursions. 

5. Similar parts of speech, or similar expressions con- 
stituting a series, must be separated by commas. 

Examples. — "A great mind, a great heart, a great orator, and a 
great career, have been consigned to history." — " He was a man patient, 
sober, honest, and industrious." 

6. A complex subject consisting of several parts which 
require commas between them, or one ending with a verb, 
must be separated from its predicate by a comma. 

Examples. — "Ranges and groups of lofty mountains, deep valleys 
through which rush rapid streams, and numberless lakes set in the 
midst of grand old forests, are the characteristics of this primitive 
region." — "Whatever is, is right." 

When a clause introduced by that, a quoted sentence, or a long 
infinitive phrase, is used as a subject, it must be set off from its 
predicate. 

Examples.— "That peace and righteousness shall ultimately pre- 
vail over all the earth, is the belief of every pious heart." — '"Know 
thyself,' was the response of the Delphic Oracle." — "To seal their 
testimony to the truth with the surrender of their lives, was often the 
lot of the early Christians." 

Words taken in pairs must have a comma after each pair. 

Example. — "The young and the old, the rich and the poor, the 
wise and the foolish, here meet on a common level." 

7. When a verb is omitted to avoid repetition, a comma 
takes its place. 

Example. — "Reading makes a full man; conference, a ready man; 
and writing, an exact man." 

8. Words or clauses denoting opposition of meaning, or 
contrast, must be separated by commas. 



PUNCTUATION. 195 

Examples. — "Return a kindness, not an injury." — "Brief, but 
decisive, was the struggle." — "Did he act wisely, or unwisely?" 

Correlative clauses, unless very short, are usually set off by commas, 
but words, phrases, or short clauses connected by than, are not set 
off, unless for the sake of emphasis; as, "The farther we advanced 
into the interior, the greater our difficulties became." — "Nothing is 
clearer than the truth of this statement." 

9. An appositional phrase must be set off by commas 
from the word or the words which it qualifies. 

Example. — "Cicero, the great Roman orator, was slain to gratify 
the revenge of Antony." 

Nouns in apposition, except with the pronoun /, are not set off by 
commas; as, "Cicero the orator was pursued and slain." — "We con- 
suls are merciful." — "I, James Brown, do solemnly affirm." 

10. The following are also set off by commas: — 

1. Words or phrases used independently; as, "My friend, you are 
wrong." — "Charles, farewell." — "To say the least, it was unfair." 

2. Absolute phrases; as, "Her health jailing, her disposition became 
more and more gloomy." 

3. An equivalent word or expression introduced by or; as, "Arith- 
metic, or the science of numbers, was introduced into Europe by the 
Arabians." 

4. Repeated words or phrases; as, "'Treason, treason, treason,' re- 
echoed from every part of the house." 

5. A clause introducing a short quotation, ending it, or separating 
its parts; as, "'Truth,' said the speaker, 'must be our sole aim.'" 

6. Whatever clause, phrase, or word would occasion ambiguity, 
if not set off by a comma; as, "I have seven brave sons, and 
daughters." 

[The limits of this work prevent the insertion of exercises upon the use 
of the points just explained. 

For exercises, recourse must be had to suitable passages from authors, or 
to the extracts from their works, contained in the various "Readers" in 
use in our schools. These passages should be dictated to the pupils, and 
the latter should be required to insert the appropriate points.] 



196 PUNCTUATION. 



The Dash. 



The Dash is used to denote a change in the construction 
of a sentence, or in its meaning, — an interruption, or a 
hesitation. 

Examples. — "Honor — 'tis an empty bubble." — "I visited him yes- 
terday — what a sight!" — "If we go — why, then — but we will talk of 
that anon; — speak on." — " Have mercy on me! I — I — I'll confess it all." 

The dash is also used to set off words and clauses used parenthetically; 
as, "I have seen thousands — or, more properly, tens of thousands — 
feeding together on the rich grass of the prairies." 

The dash is often placed after other points to give greater promi- 
nence to the separation denoted by them. 

Curves. 
Curves, or parenthesis marks, are used to enclose a word, 
a phrase, or a clause, either explanatory or suggested by 
the main idea, which is introduced in such a way as not to 
interrupt the connection of the parts of the sentence. 

Examples. — "The disposition of our most eminent and most virtuous 
men (alas! that it should be so) to keep aloof From public affairs, is 
a serious fact." — "The bright moon poured in her light on tomb and 
monument, on pillar, wall, and arch, and most of all (it seemed to 
them) upon ber quiet grave." 

The parts which arc enclosed by curves must be punctuated as 
others are; but, usually, no point is placed before the latter curve, 
unless the words form a full sentence, or require an exclamation or 
an interrogation mark. 

Curves are not employed so much as they were formerly; dashes 
take their place; as, "The great northern kingdoms of Europe— Russia, 
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway did not then attract much atten- 
tion." 

Brackets. 

Brackets arc used to enclose words necessary to explain 
a preceding word or sentence, or to correct an error. 



PUNCTUATION. 197 

Examples. — "The finder [James] has been rewarded." — " Wash- 
ington was born on the twenty-second [the eleventh, according to old 
style] day of February, 1732." — "He said how [that] he would not dis- 
appoint us." 

Quotation Marks. 

The Quotation Marks (" ") are used to enclose the exact 
words quoted from a speaker or writer. 

Example. — " Let these words be remembered : ' Touch not, taste 
not, handle not.' " 

A quotation within a quotation must be enclosed by single marks. 

If there are other quotations included within included 
quotations, they must have double marks, and so on 
alternately. 

Examples. — 1. What a world of meaning is conveyed in the ex- 
pression, "There shall be no Alps !" 

2. The teacher said, "What meaning is conveyed by the expression, 
'There shall be no Alps !'" 

3. The teacher said, " I find in my book the following sentence : 
'Trenchjsays, " What a lesson is contained in the word ' diligence '! " ' 

A divided quotation must have both parts enclosed by marks ; as, 
" I have been convinced," said he, " that I am wrong." 



INDEX. 



(Numbers refer to 



A, 40, 148 

Abstract nouns, 17 

Active voice, 50 

Address, nominative independent bv, 

123, 127 
Adjectives, 41 

definition of, 41 

classes of, 41 

comparison of, 45 

pronominal adjectives, 42, 124, 
155, 158 

how to parse, 47 

phrases used as, 116 

clauses used as, 117 

syntax of, 124, 151 
Adverbs, 88 

definition of, 88, 90 

classes of, 89 

comparison of, 90 

position of, 171 

between to and infinitive, 171 

conjunctive adverbs, 90, 177 

adverbial clause, 117 
phrase, 116 

clause used as, 117 

phrase used as, 116 

syntax of, 124, 169 

adverbial object, 134 
Access to, 175 
Acquaint with, 175 
Acquit of, 175 
Agreeable to, 175 
Among and between, 175 
Angry with or at, 175 
Arrive at or in, 175 
Averse to, 175 
Agreement, 122 

of verb with subject, 56, 158 

of pronoun with antecedent, 31, 
35, 140, 144 
Allegory, 185 



An, 40, 148 
Analysis, 104, 105 

definition of, 104 

of simple sentences, 118 

of complex sentences, 119 

of compound sentences, 120 
And, 179 
Antecedent, 35, 36, 144, 145, 146 

agreement of pronoun and, 31, 
35, 140, 144 

of it, 141 

of what, 146 
Antithesis, 186 
Any, 156 
Apostrophe, 27, 28, 33, 39, 129, 130, 

131, 185 
Apposition, 123, 136, 137 
Appositional phrase, 195 
Arrangement, 125, 127, 134, 139, 171 
Articles, 40, 124, 148, 149, 150 

definition of, 40 

definite, 40 

indefinite, 40 

syntax of, 124, 148 
As, 95, 97, 178, 179 

if, 95 
Auxiliaries, 67 

Be, 70, 139 

conjugation, of, 70 

uses of, 67, 74 
Before, 90, 98 

Between and among, 174, 175 
Both, 95, 98, 179 
Brackets, 188, 196 
But, 95, 98 
But that, 95 



Can, could, 67 
Capitals, 186, 187 
Case, 27 



(199) 



200 



INDEX. 



133, 



123, 



Case, definition of, 27 

nominative, 27, 123, 124, 125 

possessive, 27, 123, 129, 130, 
131 

objective, 27, 123, 132, 
134 

same case, 123, 139, 140 

nominative independent, 
127, 128 
Clause, 102 

definition, 102 

classes according to form, 117 
according to use, 117 
Climax, 186 

Collective noun, 16, 17, 159 
Colon, 188, 190 
Comma, 188, 192 
Common noun, 16 

adjective, 42 
Comparative, 45 
Comparison, 45, 90 

definition of, 45, 90 

regular, 45 

irregular, 46 

degrees of, 45, 90, 152 

of adverbs, 90 

use of, 152 
Complement, 132 

attribute, 132 

object, 139, 153 
( Somplex sentence, 101 

nouns, 16, 130 

adverbs, 88, 170 

prepositions, 93, 173 

conjunctions, 95 
Compound sentences, 102 

subject, 108 

predicate, 108 

nouns, 16 

personal pronouns, 33 

relative pronouns, 36 

prepositions, 93 
( kmjugation, 68 
Conjunct inns, 94, 123, 177 

definition, 94 

copulative, 95 

disjunctive, 95 

correlative, 95, 179 

complex. 95 
Conjunctive adverbs, 90, 169, 170, 
177, 178 

pronoun (see Relative), 35 
Copulative conjunction. n "> 
Could (see Can), 67 
Curves. 188. ion 



Dash, 188, 196 
Declarative sentence, 100 
Declension, 28, 32 

of nouns, 28 

of personal pronouns, 32, 34 

of relative pronouns, 35, 37 
Defective verbs, 66 
Definite article, 40, 148 
Degrees (see Comparison), 45, 90 

adverb of, 90 
Demonstrative pronominal adjec- 
tives, 43 
Depends, 123, 124, 162, 163 
Diphthong, 11 
Distributive pronominal adjective, 

43 
Double comparative, 152 

negative, 171 

Each, 43, 156 
Either, 156 
Emphasis, 125 
Ellipsis, 104, 178, 184 
Etymology, 9, 14 
Every, 43! 156 
Ever and never, 170 
Expert (it, in, with, 175 
Exclamation, 181, 1S6, 190 
Expletive, 91, 125, 170 

Feminine, 24, 39 
Few, 43, 47, 157 
For, 95, 98 

Foreign nouns, 21 
future tense, 54 

perfect, 55 

Gender, 21 

definition of. 21 

of nouns, 2 I 

of personal pronouns, 31, 33 
of relative pronouns. 36 
Grammar, '.• 

definition of, 9 
division of, 9 

II, mi before, 40 

Hyperbole, 185 

I, personal pronoun, 32 
Imperative mode, 73 

sentence. 101 
Imperfect participle, 57, 167 
indefinite pronoun, 33 



INDEX. 



201 



Indefinite pronomina. adjective, 43, 
155, 156 

article, 40, 148, 149, 150 
Independent, nominative, 127, 139 

element, 110 
Indexes, indices, 19 
Indicative mode, 52 
Infinitives, 52, 124, 162 
Interjection, 96, 190 

definition, 96 

syntax, 181 
Interrogation, 186, 188, 189 
Interrogative pronoun, 38 

sentence, 101 

adverb, 90 
Intransitive verb, 49 
Irregularly compared adjectives, 46 
Irregular verbs, 60 
It, uses of, 32, 33, 141, 143, 159 
Irony, 186 

Like, 173, 184 

Manner, adverbs of, 89, 169 
Many, 153 
a, 153 
May, might, 67 
Metaphor, 84 
Metonymy, 185 
Modifier, 102, 107, 108, 111, 112, 114, 

115, 116, 117 
Mode, 51 
More and most, 46, 152 

Negative, adverb, 89 

double, 171 
No and yes, 89, 169 
Neither, 43, 156 
Neuter gender, 24, 31, 32, 35, 123, 

140, 141, 142, 143 
News, 22 
Nominative case, 27, 31, 123, 124, 

125, 127 
None, 43, 156 
Nor, or, 95, 179 

Nouns, 14, 16, 123, 124, 127, 129, 132, 
136, 139 

common, 16 

proper, 16 

abstract, 17 

diminutive, 17 

collective, 17 
Noun clause, 107, 117 
Number, 17, 123, 124, 140, 144 
Numeral adjective, 42, 153 



O and oh, 96, 181, 190 
Object of verb, 27, 114, 123, 132 
of preposition, 116, 123, 132 
Omission, 186 
Onomatopoeia, 86 
Order, inverted, 125, 193 
Ordinal, 42, 153 

Parsing, 30 

of nouns, 30 

of pronouns, 34 

of relatives, 38, 39 

of articles, 41 

of adjectives, 44 

of verbs, 86 

of adverbs, 91 

of prepositions, 94 

of conjunctions, 96 

of interjections, 97 

of participles, 87 

of infinitives, 87 
Paralipsis or omission, 186 
Participle, 57 

definition of, 57 

forms of, 57 

uses of, 57, 166, 167 

syntax of, 123, 166 
Parts of speech, 14 

list of, 14 

words used as various, 97 
Passive voice, 50 
Period, 188 
Person, 23, 56 

of nouns, 23 

of pronouns, 32, 35 

of verbs, 56 

agreement of verb and subject, 
124, 158 
Personal pronoun, 32 

agreement with antecedent, 33 

simple, 32 

compound, 33 

table of, 32 

declension of, 32 

syntax of, 123, 140 
Personification, 185 
Phrase, 102 

definition of, 102 

classification of, 116 

uses of, 112, 114, 116 
Place, adverbs of, 89 
Pleonasm, 104, 127, 184 
Plural, 18 

formation of, 18 

of nouns, 18 



202 



INDEX. 



Plural of pronouns, 32 
Positive degree, 45 
Possessive, 27, 123, 129 

formation of, 28, 129 

of nouns, 27, 123, 129 

of pronouns, 33, 129 

of compound nouns, 28, 129, 130 
Predicate, 105 

simple, 107 

complete, 107 

compound, 108 
Prefix, 13 
Prepositions, 92, 124, 172 

definition of, 92 

classification of, 93 

object of, 123, 132, 172 

use of, 92, 172-175 

exact use of, 175 

syntax of, 172 
Prepositional phrase, 116 
Present tense, 53, 54 
Primitive word, 13 
Pronominal adjective, 42 
Pronouns, 32 

personal, 32 

relative, 35 

adjective, 43 

indefinite, 38, 43 

interrogative, .'is 

syntax, of, 140, 144, 152, 163 

Proper adjectivi -. 1 1 

Proper nouns, 16 
capital for, 187 
properties of. 17, 31, 46, 50, 90 

Punctuation, 1S,S-1'.»7 

Ql i btion, 38, 90, 189 

Quotation. 188, 1!»7 

Relative pronouns, 35, 121, in 
Regular and irregular verbs, 60 
Relates, 122 

Rhetoric, figures of. 184 
S. plural BUffix, IS 

's, sign of possessive, 28, 129 

Semicolon, 188, 191 

Sentences, 100 

definition of, 100, 101, 102 
kinds of, according t.. form, 101 

of, according to use, ion 
analvsis of, 105, 118 
structure of, 100-1 18, 122 



Separate ownership, 131 
Sex and gender, 24 
Shall, 54, 55, 67 
Simple sentence, 101 
Simile, 184 
Singular number, 17 
Since, 98 

Split infinitive, 171 
Strong and weak verbs, 59 
Subject, 106 

simple, 106 

complete, 107 

compound, 108 

clause as, 117 

phrase as, 117 
Subjunctive, 52 
Suffix, 18 
Superlative, 45 
Synecdoche, 185 
Syntax, rules of, 123, 124 
Synthesis, 104 

Tense, 53 

That, 98, 145, 177, 179 
The, 40, 148, 149 
Then, 89, 99 

Time, adverbs of, 89 

To before infinitive, 53, 163 

Triphthong, 11 

Three first, first three, 153 

Two negatives, 171 

QniPERSONAX verbs, 56 

Verb, 48, 124, 158 
Verbal, 58 
Vision, 185 
Voice, 50 
Vowel, 10 

WEAK and strong verbs, 59 

Who, 35, 36, 38, 102, 144, 14.".. 146 

Which, 35, 36, :<n. 117. 111. 145, lie. 

What, 35, 36, 38, 144, 145, 146 

While, 00, 177 

When. 90, 102, 177 

Where. 90, 117 

¥■8 and on, 89, 169 
Vet, 99 

You, 32. Ill 
Yourself, 34 



DEC .89 19W 



